- Derek M. Hansen –

I had the pleasure of being in Times Square in New York City last weekend for the announcement of the 2011 Heisman Trophy winner, Baylor’s Robert Griffin III. As soon as his name was announced, I thought of fellow strength coach and friend, Chris Ruf of Baylor University, and his contributions to the achievement of this award. When I contacted Coach Ruf and congratulated him, he mentioned that track and field’s loss was Baylor Football’s gain. And, on further research, I discovered Robert Griffin III could very well have represented the United States in the 2012 Olympics in the 400m hurdles.

As a track and field athlete, Robert Griffin III broke state records for the 110-meter and 300-meter hurdles. He ran the 110-meter hurdles in 13.55 seconds, and the 300m hurdles in 35.33 seconds. The 300m hurdle time was one-hundredth of a second short of breaking the national high school record. He was also won gold in the 110 and 400-meter hurdles on the AAU track and field circuit. As a high school junior, he sprinted 13.46 in the 110-meter hurdles and 49.56 in the 400-meter hurdles. In 2007, as a junior, he was rated the No. 1 high school 400-meter immediate hurdler in the country, and was tied at No. 1 for the 110-meter sprint hurdler in the nation. In 2008, at the age of 18 years, he qualified for the semi-final in the 2008 U.S. Olympic trials in the 400m hurdles running a world-class time of 49.73 seconds. Unless you have been living in a cave for the last few months, I don’t believe I need to elaborate on his football accomplishments.

Strangely enough, I had a conversation a few weeks ago with legendary strength coach, Al Vermeil. He was commenting on how he thought hurdlers made good football skill players. He mentioned Willie Gault and a few others. And, I know that the San Francisco 49ers were evaluating Renaldo Nehemiah – the world record holder in the 110m hurdles, with no college football experience – in 1982 when Al was still the strength and conditioning coach for the team. It made me ask the question, “What other great hurdlers became professional athletes in the NFL?”

Transferable Qualities of Hurdling

If there is a correlation between hurdling and football success, what are the factors that contribute to this relationship? If you examine the key elements of hurdling, you can see that there are some significant abilities that could transfer over to football as follows:

Pure Speed

To be a good sprint hurdler, you must be fast. If you examine the sprint abilities of the top hurdlers, you will find they have excellent sprint times. In most cases, these athletes have possessed great speed abilities (i.e. much faster than most NFL players), but are not fast enough to rise to the top of the 100m rankings. For example, Terrence Trammell has run 12.95 seconds in the 110m hurdles and has also run 10.04 seconds in the 100m. Mark McKoy, the 1992 Olympic hurdle champion, ran 10.08 seconds in the 100m and 6.49 seconds in the indoor 60m. Does a great 100m time make you a fast hurdler? Absolutely not. But the faster hurdlers are fast sprinters, relatively speaking, and can transfer that speed to success in football.

Mobility

Without a doubt, great hip mobility is required for success in hurdling. Is it a coincidence that most strength coaches are using hurdle walk-over drills in an effort to build more hip mobility? No. In football, greater hip mobility allows athletes to change direction, both horizontally and vertically, with greater quickness, power and efficiency whether it means getting around or over obstacles. More flexibility in the hips also reduces stresses through the lower back, knees, quads and hamstrings. This quality definitely allows a hurdling athlete to make a smoother transition to the football field.

Vision and Focus

Pure sprinters simply need to focus on the finish line. Sprint hurdlers have to get over ten 42-inch barriers in as little time as possible. Their vision is not focused on individual hurdles, but an array of barriers. Focusing too much on one particular barrier can result in disaster as attack angle, rhythm and flight mechanics can be disrupted. Good vision is not about locking onto one specific hurdle, but scanning through the rows and not panicking about any one in particular. While you are focusing on what you need to do, barriers are crashing around you and limbs are flying into your lane. These are qualities that transfer well to football, particularly if you are a quarterback like Robert Griffin III. Over the longer hurdle races, such as the 400m hurdles, this focus must be maintained as severe fatigue sets in and consistent stride length must be maintained.

Athleticism and Technique

The technical requirements of hurdling lend themselves to the intricacies of football. Great hurdling athletes are not inattentive. They must be aware of the technical requirements of their sport and work on the individual elements every training session. This quality must be combined with significant athleticism and coordination. Running at near full speed and executing technique that allows you to clear a 42-inch hurdle be a mere fraction of an inch takes years of careful practice. It is no different than the skill required to catch a pass at near full speed with defenders draped all over you, all while having the presence of mind and skill to get both feet down inside the sideline.

Stride Frequency and Length

Running between each of the ten hurdles in the 110m hurdles requires quick, consistent stepping in order to post a fast time. The strides between the hurdles tend to be significantly shorter and quicker than those applied in a straight sprint such as the 100 meters. On average, the fastest portion of the men’s 100 meters at the world class level involves 4.8 strides per second, 2.3 meters per stride and a horizontal velocity of 11.8 meters per second. Whereas in the 110m hurdles, a world class athlete can put down as many as 6.0 strides per second in between hurdles, at a shorter 1.80m per stride and a peak horizontal velocity of 9.3 meters per second. Thus, sprint hurdlers put down shorter, quicker strides at a sub-maximal horizontal sprinting velocity than 100m sprinters. This is a much more compatible stride pattern for football, where quicker, shorter, nimble strides are more effective for starting, stopping and cutting movements.

Contact and Collisions

Anyone who has trained and competed in hurdles knows that at any given time, you could end up on the ground in a split second. As a youth, I vividly remember a training session where I cleared the first hurdle and then, on the second hurdle, I broke the cross-board between my legs, skidded for 8 yards and then found my face buried underneath the third hurdle. Like a good hurdler, I got up and readied myself for the next repetition. Football is no different, although a spindly hurdle tripping you is not a good comparison to a fast moving 240lb linebacker putting you on your back. But of all the track and field events, hurdling is most likely to knock you on your butt with annoying regularity.

The Hurdling/Football Athletes

Now that I have put forward my argument as to why I feel hurdlers make good football players, here is my incomplete list of the athletes, in no particular order, I have found to have had significant successes in both the hurdles and professional football:

- Jerry Tarr attended the University of Oregon where he competed in both football and track. Tarr was a member of Oregon’s 4 x 110 yard relay team with Mike Gaechter, Harry Jerome, and Mel Renfro, setting a world record in the event in 1962. Individually, Tarr excelled in the 120-yard hurdles. He was the first athlete to win back-to-back NCAA titles in the high hurdles in 1961 and 1962, and in doing so, helped Oregon win its first ever NCAA Men’s Outdoor Track and Field Championship in 1962. Tarr went on to play professional football rather than continue his track career, completing one season as a wide receiver with the Denver Broncos of the AFL in 1962.

- Richmond Flowers played football for the University of Tennessee and was also a member of the track team. Alabama football coach Bear Bryant hired Billy Hardin, the former Olympic hurdler, to try to persuade Flowers to attend Alabama. Flowers ultimately went to Tennessee and, as a Junior, defeated Southern University’s Willie Davenport in the 120-yard high hurdles, winning the race in 13.3 seconds. The time was a tenth of a second slower than the world record. Soon after, Flowers injured his right hamstring while doing sprints in Knoxville. The injury prevented him from competing in the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, where Davenport won the gold medal in the 120 highs. Flowers eventually played in the NFL as a safety with the Dallas Cowboys (1969-71) and New York Giants (1971-73). Flowers was a backup safety on the Cowboys team that lost Super Bowl V to the Baltimore Colts, 16-13, in January 1971. He made six interceptions, all with the New York Giants, in his five-year NFL career. Four of his interceptions came in 1972.

- Earl McCullouch played college football at the University of Southern California and was one of five USC Trojans players taken in the first round of the 1968 NFL Draft after his senior year. In the 1967 and 1968 seasons, McCulloch played wide receiver on the USC offense that featured tailback O. J. Simpson. McCullouch was difficult to cover in pass routes and pursuit due to his world-class sprinting speed. As a member of the USC Track & Field team, McCulloch was the NCAA 110 Yard High Hurdle champion in 1967 and 1968, the NCAA 55 yard indoor high hurdle champion in 1968. He was the world record holder for the 110-meter men’s high hurdle sprint from July 1967 to July 1969, and also was the lead leg sprinter of the USC NCAA 4 X 110-yard world record (38.6 seconds) sprint relay team in 1967 and 1968 (the team also featured Simpson and future Olympian sprinter Lennox Miller). McCullouch played for the Detroit Lions (1968-73) and the New Orleans Saints (1974). He was named NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year in 1968.

- Willie Gault played in the NFL for 11 seasons for the Chicago Bears (1983-87) and Los Angeles Raiders (1988-1993). Gault was a standout in both football and track at the University of Tennessee receiving All-American honors as a receiver in 1982. Gault was a member of a world record-setting 4 x 100 meter U.S. relay team and earned a spot on the 1980 Summer Olympic team as a 110 meter hurdler only to miss the games due to the U.S. boycott. His best times are 13.26 in the 110 meters hurdles and 10.10 in the 100 meters. Gault was drafted in 1983, selected 18th overall in the first round. In Super Bowl XX, Gault had four receptions for 129 yards, and four kickoff returns for 49 yards. Gault finished his 11 NFL seasons with 333 receptions for 6,635 yards. He also returned 9 punts for 60 yards, rushed for 154 yards, returned 45 kickoffs for 1,088 yards, and scored 45 touchdowns. More recently, Gault has gone on to compete in Master’s track and field, recording world records in both the 100m (10.76) and 200m (21.80) in the 45-49 year old age group category.

- Rod Woodson is a former NFL defensive back best known for his 10-year stint with the Pittsburgh Steelers as well as contributing to the Baltimore Ravens’ Super Bowl XXXV championship season. While attending Purdue University, Woodson excelled at both track and football, receiving All-American honors on two occasions. Woodson established school records in both the 60m and 110m hurdles and earned five Big 10 championships during his collegiate career. He qualified for the 1984 Olympic trials in the 110m hurdles, but elected to pursue a career in football following graduation. In addition to playing for Pittsburgh and Baltimore, Woodson also played for the San Francisco 49ers and Oakland Raiders, wearing No. 26 throughout his career. He holds the NFL records for career interception return yardage (1,483) and interception returns for touchdowns (12), and was named the NFL Defensive Player of the Year in 1993. His 71 career interceptions places him third overall in NFL history. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio in 2009.

- James Owens played in the NFL for the San Francisco 49ers (1979-80) and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (81-84) over six seasons. He played both the running back and receiver positions throughout his career. While at UCLA, Owens was the NCAA 110m hurdle champion in 1977, while placing second in 1975-76. Owens also competed for the U.S. in the 1976 Montreal Summer Olympics, placing sixth overall in the final. His personal best times were 13.46 in the 110m hurdles and 10.47 in the 100m. He still ranks second on UCLA’s all-time 110m high hurdles list. As a halfback for the UCLA Bruin football team, Owens had eight 100-plus yard games finishing his career with 2,074 yards and a 5.01 average. Owens was voted team MVP in 1977 and received the outstanding senior award in 1978. Ironically, sprinting and hurdling legend Jesse Owens’ original name was James Cleveland Owens. He became Jesse when a teacher accidently wrote down his name as “Jesse” instead of J.C.

- Renaldo Nehemiah was known more for his hurdling prowess than football achievements. In 1981, Nehemiah became the first person to run the 110m hurdles in under 13 seconds posting a 12.93 second World Record at the Zurich Weltklasse meet. Nehemiah dominated the hurdle events in high school running 12.9 seconds in the 110m hurdles and 35.8 seconds in the 300m hurdles (remember, RG III ran it in 35.33 seconds). At the University of Maryland, Nehemiah achieved three NCAA hurdle titles, two indoor and one outdoor. Despite dominating the sprint hurdle event in the late seventies and early eighties, Nehemiah decided to pursue a football career in the NFL, even though he had not played collegiate football. He played two-and-a-half seasons with the San Francisco 49ers and amassed career totals of 754 receiving yards, four touchdowns and an average of 17.4 yards per reception. After a lackluster career in the NFL, Nehemiah returned to the hurdles in 1986 to achieve world rankings four more times from 1988 to 1991.

- Tedd Ginn, Jr. currently plays for the San Francisco 49ers in the NFL and played for the Miami Dolphins from 2007 to 2009. Ginn was a national champion 110m hurdler as a high school senior running a time of 13.40 seconds (he ran a wind-aided 13.26), also running a time of 36.73 seconds in the 300m hurdles. Ginn was recruited to run track at Ohio State, but decided to focus on football. He finished his career at OSU with 125 receptions for a total of 1,943 yards and 15 touchdowns. He also set a Big 10 record for most career punt returns for touchdown (6 in total).

- Paul Lowe, an Oregon State graduate, was a high hurdle champion in high school and college. “That’s where I got my style from with the high knee action. I was only 170lbs, so I wasn’t going to run over anyone.” Lowe amassed 4,995 yards as a running back for San Diego and Kansas City in the NFL averaging 4.9 yards per carry from 1960 to 1969.

- Reyna Thompson played defensive back for the Miami Dolphins (1986-89), New York Giants (1990-92) and the New England Patriots (1993). In his senior year in high school in 1981, Thompson clocked the nation’s fastest time in the 110m hurdles at 13.4 seconds. He then enrolled at Baylor University on a track scholarship. He qualified for the 1984 U.S. Olympic trials in the high hurdles, but was not able to compete due to a hamstring injury.

- Roger Craig, the star running back for the San Francisco 49ers from 1983 to 1990, outlined how he attributed much of his football success to running the high hurdles in his book, Tales from the San Francisco 49ers Sideline. “My football running style helped me when I was running the hurdles – and my form in the high hurdles helped me on the football field, too. Ira Dunsworth, my track coach, taught me the correct form to use on the track. I finished in second place in the 110m high hurdles and the 400m hurdles at the Iowa State Track and Field Championships my senior year. I found that I could be even more effective on the football field if I applied the same principles of running with my knees up.”

- Bobby Mitchell played for the Cleveland Browns (1958-61) and the Washington Redskins (1962-68) as a halfback in the NFL and was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1983. Mitchell had a successful hurdling career, setting an indoor world record in 1958 in the 70 yard low hurdles with a time of 7.7 seconds. Mitchell had an opportunity to try to make the 1960 Olympic team, but instead opted to play for the Cleveland Browns.

- Tyrone Wheatley played for the New York Giants (1995-98) and the Oakland Raiders (1999-2004) in the NFL, totaling over 6,500 all purpose yards as a running back and kick returner. As a high school track and field athlete, Wheatley ran the 110m hurdles in a time of 13.87 seconds in 1991. At the University of Michigan, Wheatley placed eighth in the 1995 NCAA outdoor championships in the 110m hurdles, earning him All-American honors. He finished his college career running 13.77 seconds in the 110m hurdles and 10.46 seconds in the 100 meters.

- Gene Washington was NCAA Indoor Champion in the 60 yard high hurdles in 1965 for Michigan State University. Washington played for the Minnesota Vikings (1967-72) and the Denver Broncos (1973-74) as a wide receiver. Washington made the Pro Bowl in 1969 and 1970.

- Qadry Ismail played wide receiver in the NFL between 1993 and 2002 for a number of teams including the Minnesota Vikings, Green Bay Packers, Miami Dolphins, New Orleans Saints, Baltimore Ravens and the Indianopolis Colts. Ismail won a Super Bowl in 2000 while with the Baltimore Ravens. As a high schooler, Ismail finished his senior year as the third-fasts 110m hurdler in Pennsylvania State history with a time of 13.71 seconds. He went on to play football and run track at Syracuse University, posting a best 110m hurdle time of 13.60 seconds.

- Jabari Greer currently plays for the New Orleans Saints as a cornerback. He was initially signed by the Buffalo Bills in 2004 after playing his college career at the University of Tennessee. In 2003, Greer won the SEC 110m hurdle title with a personal best time of 13.32 seconds, the second-fastest time in school history behind Willie Gault’s 13.26 seconds.

- Nolan Cromwell played defensive back for the Los Angeles Rams from 1977 to 1987. He was named to the Pro Bowl over four consecutive years (1980 to 1983) and played in the 1979 Super Bowl with the Rams. As a college athlete at Kansas University, Cromwell earned All-American honors in the 400m hurdles with a performance of 49.47 seconds. In 1975 and 1976, Cromwell was the Big Eight 400m hurdle champion.

- Mel Renfro placed second in the 1962 NCAA Track and Field Championships in the 120-yard hurdles while competing for the University of Oregon. Renfro was also a member of the 1962 440-yard relay team, coached by Bill Bowerman, that broke the world record with a time of 40.0 seconds. As a football player, Renfro had a 14-year career in the NFL playing as a defensive back for the Dallas Cowboys. He was selected to the Pro Bowl in each of his first ten seasons in the NFL and played in four Super Bowls. Renfro was selected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1996.

- Hugh McElhenny was a running back in the NFL from 1952-1964, playing for the San Francisco 49ers, Minnesota Vikings, New York Giants and Detroit Lions. He gained a total of 11,375 all-purpose yards in his 13 year career. While with the 49ers, he was nicknamed “The King”. McElhenny was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1970. When attending George Washington High School in Los Angeles, McElhenny held city school records for the 120 yard and 180 yard hurdles. He claimed that the training he performed for track and field helped him in football.

- Glenn Davis was a world class sprinter and hurdler who won a total of three gold medals in the 1956 and 1960 Olympic games. Davis ran the 120 yard high hurdles in 14.0 seconds and had world records in the 200m low hurdles (22.5 seconds) and the 400m hurdles (49.1 seconds). His Olympic titles were in the 400m hurdles in the Melbourne Olympics in 1956 and the 1960 Rome Olympics. Davis is the only man to have set world record in the 400m with hurdles and without. After his illustrious track career, Davis played wide receiver for the Detroit Lions in the 1960 and 1961 seasons.

- Clyde Scott competed in both track and football at the University of Arkansas and the US Naval Academy. Scott won the 110m hurdles for Arkansas in the NCAA Championships in a time of 13.7 seconds. He competed for the U.S. in the 1948 London Olympics and won the silver medal in the 110m hurdles. In 1948, Scott was chosen in NFL draft, playing three seasons with the Philadelphia Eagles and one season with the Detroit Lions.

Concluding Remarks

As I noted before, this is not a complete list. In fact, I may have omitted several professional football players who actually competed in the hurdles as part of their careers in the decathlon. Jim Thorpe is one name that comes to mind. And there may have been several great hurdlers who made the decision to stick with track rather than invest more energy into football. David Oliver, who has a personal best time in the 110m hurdles of 12.89 seconds, also played wide receiver at Howard University. Does anyone know whether or not Tim Tebow ran hurdles in grade school?

Regardless, there are many reasons why hurdling is compatible with football. Would I recommend that athletes who want to excel at football take up hurdling? I don’t see why not. I believe that performing a number of hurdling drills can have a positive impact on many of the qualities I have identified. I currently incorporate hurdle sprints into several of the training sessions I provide for football athletes. As a general philosophy, I believe competing in several track and field events and other speed and power dependent sports can have a beneficial influence on an athlete’s overall development. Hurdling is just another activity that has the ability to vault an athlete over the competition.

- Derek M. Hansen -

Running successfully over long distances (I consider anything over 400 meters to be a long distance) requires a composite of many factors. The majority of distance runners will tell you that “mileage” and overall training volume will form the foundation of their training program. Hence, good distance runners tend to have:

- Low body mass
- Low percentage of body fat
- High percentage of slow-twitch muscle fibers
- Relatively high VO2 max (maximal oxygen uptake)
- A poor chance of winning in the Ultimate Fighting Championship

Thus, when we picture a successful distance runner, we tend to think of a skinny person of average height with an efficient cardiovascular system and big lungs. We certainly do not envision a heavily muscled body sculpted through hours of hard work in the weightlifting gym. So why would any lightly muscled distance runner even consider touching a weight when planning their training program?

An excerpt from exercise physiologist Dave Costill’s 1979 book, A Scientific Approach to Distance Running, gives us a closer look the average strength characteristics of the typical elite distance runner.

“In 1968, we tested Lou Castagnola, a 2:17 marathoner. At that time he had a maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) of 72.4 ml/kg minute and a vertical jump of 29.2 cm. Following the 1968 U.S. Olympic marathon trial, he terminated all training. Three years later we re-examined him and found his VO2 max had declined to 47.6 ml/kg minute. His vertical jump, on the other hand, increased to 51.cm, a 76% increase despite his detrained status. This suggests that endurance running impairs leg speed and explosive power.”

Although this excerpt is from an old book, it’s findings hold true over numerous research studies performed in the three decades since its publishing. And, these findings can be confirmed by simply going for a 45 minute run, then following up the run with an explosive weightlifting session. The two activities mix as well as a snack of popcorn and bubblegum.

If strength and power related activities are so incompatible with cyclical aerobic activities, why would we be proposing the use of strength training for distance runners? It seems as though the results would be disastrous. Yet there still remain many good reasons for keeping strength training within your long distance running program.

Improved running mechanics. Improvements in multi-joint strength and power abilities can minimize excessive hip, knee and ankle flexion during the support phase of the running stride. A longer ground-contact time is often observed in runners with a lower strength-to-weight ratio. These athletes experience a greater amount of flexion in the lower extremities on ground contact, negatively affecting their running economy. Higher strength levels achieved through a combination of conventional weight lifting and plyometric training can improve overall lower body strength, stiffness and elasticity, ultimately enhancing running mechanics and efficiency. Flat tires on an automobile ultimately result in poor performance and fuel economy. The same could be said for running athletes with poor lower body strength.

Enhanced injury prevention. Overuse injuries often plague long distance runners, particularly when the majority of mileage is accumulated over hard, paved surfaces. As the research has shown, resistance training performed early in the development of young athletes can increase their bone density. Continued resistance training through an athlete’s lifetime can help to preserve bone density and slow the potential for loss of bone density in latter years. As many long distance runners have discovered, stress fractures in the feet and lower legs can be a common symptom of high mileage. Any means of strengthening these bones could help to minimize the incidence of injury and, hence, lost training time.

Soft-tissue injuries such as tendonitis, low back pain and shin-splints can also be prevented with a training program that incorporates exercises that progressively load muscles and connective tissue. A stronger, more resilient body will allow for more intense workouts and higher volumes of training for running athletes.

Neuromuscular recruitment improvements. A maximal strength program may make perfect sense for 100 meter sprinters, but there are also unique benefits for longer distance runners. A well designed strength training program that incorporates low repetitions, relatively high loads and appropriate recovery times between sets will develop muscles that produce more force while not resulting in unwanted muscle bulk. Improvements in maximal force production make sub-maximal efforts much easier, particularly over longer durations. And, since not all long distance running occurs on flats or down-hill sections, hill climbing can be enhanced by muscle strength improvements derived from strength training.

It is interesting to note that I recently cracked open my copy of Peter Coe’s book, “Better Training for Distance Runners.” I was encouraged to find a photo of Sebastian Coe half squatting with a loaded barbell of 100 kg – which would be well above his training body weight. In the text supporting the photo, Peter Coe states that, “Five reps constitute a typical set.” This was not surprising to see as we have heard many stories of Seb Coe running very fast 400m splits in relays. Although he was renowned for his middle-distance accomplishments, it was apparent that he had significant speed abilities that could not be developed by high volume running alone.

Balancing out your training. At some point in your training, you will reach a point of diminishing returns with one or all of your current training elements. You can only run so far before you stop improving and start to de-train or get injured. Cross-training can provide significant benefits while preventing plateaus in training and elevating complimentary qualities such as speed, power, strength and durability. These qualities are often forgot when mileage is the primary concern for athletes competing in distance running. Once you direct a portion of your time and energy to higher intensity qualities, they can feed back into your primary training and provide a transfer effect that leads to better overall running performance. Also, you cannot discount the benefit of having a variety of training environments and modes to keep you psychologically fresh and enthusiastic about your training. Achieving a proper balance of training inputs can improve performance without increasing the risk of overtraining.

If you examine the most recent achievement by Kenyan athlete, Patrick Makau, completing the Berlin marathon in a World record time of 2:03:38, you can come up with some interesting conclusions. He averaged a 4:43 mile pace over 26.2 miles translating into 70.75 seconds per 400m (the equivalent of running around a quarter mile track 104 times). In order to run consecutive 70-second quarter miles for two hours, I would surmise that he has the capability to run a 400 meter race time of no less than 47 seconds, a 200m race in 21.5 seconds and a 100m time of under 11 seconds. That type of performance takes a degree of fast twitch muscle fiber that doesn’t come just from long runs in the plains of Africa.

Exercise Prescriptions

So if we can all agree that improved strength qualities can enhance overall running performance, how does one go about developing an appropriate strength training program? As with any exercise prescription or planning process, individual differences will arise depending on age, gender, experience, pre-existing injuries and goals. However, there are some basic guidelines that can be followed to get the most out of a strength training regime that will add value to your running program.

Don’t be afraid to lift heavy weights using less repetitions. Conventional wisdom for endurance runners has been to lift light weight over numerous repetitions. It is not uncommon for long distance runners and other endurance athletes to engage in 3-4 sets of 15-20 repetitions with low recovery times between sets. While this may intuitively fit with their endurance profile, it does very little to improve their durability and high performance capabilities as the type of work they are performing is too similar to what they are already doing with their running. In other words, it is overly redundant. These endurance athletes would be better served by running more, as it is more specific to their ultimate goal.

There is a misplaced fear that lifting heavy weights will result in bulky, useless muscle. If the correct repetitions and loads are selected, weightlifting can yield great improvements in muscle recruitment and force production, without significant increases in muscle cross-sectional area and body weight. Sets in the range of two to five repetitions with 80-95% of a one repetition maximum can easily be integrated into a runners training program without creating unwanted side effects. Of course, time has to be taken to develop technical proficiency and progressively build up the loads being lifted to ensure that an athlete minimize risk of injury. Such work also prepares athletes for the stress of other complimentary activities such as plyometrics.

Why sit when you can stand? Implement the majority of your exercises with your feet planted on the ground. Ground based exercises such as dead-lifting, squatting, lunging and overhead pressing can provide the vertical loading required for improving lower limb force producing qualities and postural integrity. While many core-strengthening routines utilize exercises that are carried out in horizontal positions, I’m a big proponent of loading the body vertically. It’s been many tens of thousands of years since we were quadripeds. Now that we are walking and running bipedally in the upright position, our training should reflect this fact. Loading the spine, pelvis and legs vertically with weight training will pay dividends for running athletes who spend most of the time on their feet.

Incorporate jumps, plyometrics and/or medicine ball throws into your routine. A good portion of your strength training activities can be undertaken without the use of weightlifting equipment. Jumps that focus on strong hip extension – such as jumping up stairs or up onto a box – can help develop powerful glutes, quads and hamstrings. Plyometric jumps over short distances, focusing on quick ground contacts, can develop lower leg strength and elastic power that can feed back into efficient stride mechanics. The addition of medicine ball throws and passes to your strength training routine can provide a total body workout that can build general strength, power, mobility and speed. Incorporating a combination of these activities into your overall training program one to two times per week can add the right type of intensity to your training program without creating more wear and tear. As with a higher intensity weight training program, a gradual progression of work for these ballistic activities is essential to avoid joint and soft-tissue injuries, thereby facilitating the positive evolution of your training program.

Running drills for strength, speed and power. Basic running drills that incorporate marching, skipping and rapid knee lifts can be useful in isolating the key mechanical components of the running stride and enhancing these individual qualities. Often referred to as the A, B and C’s of running drills, these drills can be used to hone technique, improve flexibility, stabilize posture, build core strength and enhance force production capabilities. These drills can be combined with regular running workouts or used in a separate qualitative technique workouts. If performed in association with a longer distance running workout, it is recommended that these drills be performed prior to the run when fatigue is not a factor. In many ways, these drills can be used as a warm-up or technique primer before a running workout.

Keep it simple. People are always anxious to add more elements to their training program in an effort to improve performance. It is advisable to add new elements incrementally in an effort to evaluate their efficacy and your body’s reaction to additional work. Patience and meticulous planning will pay off in the long run, while the haphazard clustering of new techniques can only end badly.

Additionally, there are always new training types and trends that claim to enhance performance. Rubber bands, vibration platforms, kettle-bells, suspension training, hot yoga and hypoxic training devices are examples of trendy innovations that are flooding the market. This list is endless and can be expensive. Certainly these devices can add variety to your program. But do they actually deliver improved performance? That is the question that you seriously need to ask yourself when faced with the prospect of handing over more cash with no tangible return on your investment. Everyone likes the idea of placebos in training, as the mind can be a powerful ally in your day-to-day struggle to carry out your workouts. But in the long run, the “sugar pills” may just add more calories, not better performances.

Final Remarks

Perhaps I am just a purist. I believe that common sense adjustments to the volume and intensity of a training program over time can yield the best results. When it comes to a training program, you must have a full understanding of the contribution of all of the exercises and inputs. You must also have a means of monitoring the value and shortcomings of specific training elements. If something is not working for you, do not hesitate to remove it or, at the very least, minimize its involvement. Alternatively, you may know that some training elements are providing value added. However, would an increase in volume lead to greater improvements, or would a point of diminishing returns become a factor?

Ultimately, your training program is no different than a culinary recipe. A given gourmet recipe may call for one tablespoon of salt in order to make the dish taste just right and get rave reviews. Yet two tablespoons of salt might lead to a gut-wrenching experience that drives people out of your restaurant. The right ingredients added at the right time and in the proper amounts are the key to a good recipe. A training plan for long distance runners, or any athletes for that matter, should be no different. Make sure that you are adding the right types and amounts of work at the right time in your program, using experience and common sense as your guides. With careful management and decision making, your workouts and your meals will be much easier to digest.

Robert A. Panariello MS, PT, ATC, CSCS
Professional Orthopedic and Sports Physical Therapy
Professional Athletic Performance Center
New York, New York

The lack of early age athletic “preparation” as well as the common occurrence of youth athletic “sports specialization” is presently an all too common theme in the United States. The dream of a college scholarship and perhaps an ensuing professional payday appears to often be the incentive for such early sport specialization. However, too early a sport specialization does have its consequences. An example of such a consequence is the 12 year-old baseball pitcher whom I recently rehabilitated after arthroscopic elbow surgery. According to his father “this young man is going to be the next Roger Clemens”. Obviously the father did not realize that throughout Roger Clemens’s athletic career, this Hall of Fame caliber pitcher never had elbow surgery. My time and experiences with this young athlete was my incentive to write this article.

The athletes of today live in a much different society than the athletes of decades past. The days of walking or riding a bicycle to one’s destination is often replaced with a car ride from parents, an arranged “carpool”, or perhaps a helping hand from a friend or neighbor. The advances in technology have provided us with the Internet, a venue for obtaining information effortlessly and provides an ease of multiple tasks as it is no longer necessary for one to leave their home as often to make a sales purchase, communicate with friends, travel to the public the library, etc… and essentially producing instant gratification at one’s fingertips.

The days of sandlot competition and playground pick-up games have been frequently replaced with various video games played at home in a sedentary position. However, there are certainly millions of children, teenagers, and young adults that participate in athletic activities. Some of these young athletes partake with the aforementioned dream of their participation evolving as a gateway to a college scholarship and perhaps even an eventual professional occupation. Though the number of Americans that participate in some type of physical activity, and more specifically, the number of present day athletes who physically train with the goal of athletic enhancement is probably at an all time high, the question arises are these athletes prepared for the stresses of vigorous Athletic Performance Training as well as the enduring repetitive stresses that will occur over a long competitive season? Unlike the athletes of decades past, many of today’s adolescent and teenaged athletes are often sedentary when off the field of play, and many are of the mindset of “sport specialization”, meaning a significant percentage of these individual athletes participate in one specific sport and only that sport activity throughout the year (i.e. 24/7/365).

Each year an increased number of athletes (just like that 12 year old pitcher) walk through the doors of our physical therapy clinics with both performance training and athletic participation injuries. Many parents with whom I speak are of the opinion that the performance training as well as the organized athletic participation of these athletes is initiated at too young an age. I have had many conversations with a number of Strength and Conditioning (S&C) Coaches, many with whom I associate, and their opinion with regard to this subject matter is that prior to the initiation of the athletes performance training a “lack of physical preparation” occurs all too often. This opinion comprises athletes of all ages and levels of competition including those at both the college and professional level of play. Often times it is the athlete’s skills that render them successful, but it is their lack of physical preparation and at times, their lack of “athleticism” that may “set them up” so to speak, for potential injury.

At the time of the initiation of an athletic performance training program, many young athletes, and at times their coaches, are more concerned with the amount of weight the athlete can lift vs. the proper way to prepare to train. A common question a coach or teenage athlete may ask their peer is “How much can you bench?” vs. “What kind of training program do you utilize? “

If the present day young athlete is less physically active (sedentary) during the early developmental stages of life, and disregards the opportunity for their body, and more specifically the neuromuscular system of the body to adapt and develop from the experiences of the various environmental stresses that occur in a child’s life, are they less prepared at the time of the initiation of performance training and/or their selected sport of participation? If the physical stresses such as walking, running, bicycle riding, tree climbing, participation in various sports and physical activities, etc… occur less frequently or are even eliminated, in addition to elementary schools and physical education classes eliminating “dangerous” activities such as a schoolyard game of “tag”, or climbing ropes in the gym class, is the young athlete of today as physically well prepared as the young athlete of the past? Are today’s young athletes prepared to adapt to the high stresses that are applied to their body over a prolonged period of time without breaking down? Are college and professional athletes, whom are so specialized and demonstrate high skill levels for their particular sport of participation, also prepared for the high stresses of their off-season training program?

Skill vs. Athleticism

Many successful one-sport specialized athletes are very “skilled” at their particular sport of participation. Though a baseball player may have a .300 batting average, or a basketball player may make a high percentage of his/her shots, are these athletes flexible, strong, powerful, and fast? Is their conditioning and work capacity at optimal levels? Are they prepared for the training that hopefully will not only enhance their level of play, but also allow them to resist the stresses associated with athletic participation over a long season (avoid injury) while maintaining their ability to perform at an optimal level of performance time and time again?

There are also many athletes that display high levels of ‘athleticism”, but are not necessarily “skillful”. For example, an athlete with a superb vertical jump many not be a very good shooter of the basketball. A football player who displays excellent running velocity but demonstrates the inability to catch a football may be assigned to become a defensive back or with special teams. There is certainly a difference between “skill’ and “athleticism” and it would be a crucial mistake for a coach to not recognize the differences between these two physical entities. Our responsibility as S&C Coaches is to enhance the athleticism and work capacity of our athletes, as well as assist in injury prevention. The newly developed athletic “enhancement” will eventually transfer to result in optimal athletic “skill” performance as the athlete continues to practice their skills over time i.e. hit a baseball further. The S&C Coach is also responsible for the preparation of our athletes, when necessary, prior to their participation in a stressful performance training program, to ensure that the training is applicable, that athletic enhancement is achieved, that overall work capacity is enhanced, and that the reduction of a potential risk injury is attained. The coaches, and more specifically, the position coaches of the specific sport of participation are the individuals responsible for enhancing the specific skill(s) level of the athlete. Due to the distinct differences displayed in these two physical entities (skill vs. athleticism), a very highly skilled athlete may not be prepared for the task of strenuous athletic performance training, or for their long season of participation during athletic competition.

The Neuromuscular System of the Body

The significance of the nervous/neuromuscular system of the young athlete was very highly emphasized during my time studying in the Eastern Bloc. Many of the coaches and instructors stressed of how “plastic” the nervous system of an adolescent is, and how this system of the body could be “molded” during the athletes early years during the initiation of the process of “general physical preparation” (GPP) that would assist to result in the young individual becoming the best possible athlete that they themselves could come to be. In fact, these coaches and instructors stated that up to 57.5% of the physical qualities that are potentially developed over the athlete’s career (athletic life) occurred between the ages of 12 to 16. This information was further substantiated to me by Mr. Gregorio Goldstein, a former Soviet Weightlifter and Weightlifting Coach here in the U.S with whom my friend and at the time NFL New York Giant S&C Coach Johnny Parker and I studied with for approximately 5 years. Coach Goldstein also highly recommended, as the other Eastern bloc athletic enhancement authorities, the necessity for young athletes to participate in as many different athletic endeavors as possible. This participation was necessary to develop their nervous system, athleticism, and work capacity, prior to focusing on the specialization of their particular sport. This GPP also prepared the athlete for the high stresses of performance training to not only enhance the individual’s athletic performance, but to ensure the body’s resistance to these appropriately applied high stresses and reduce the risk and avoid possible injury. Even at the professional level of competition, Coach Goldstein recommended that the NY Giant football players participate in at least 250 to 300 hours of GPP annually.

Preparation for Athletic Performance Training

Prior to the initiation of any athletic performance training program, an evaluation of each athlete should be performed. If an evaluation were not performed, how would the coach possibly know of the deficiencies incurred by each athlete? The method of evaluation may be specific to the opinion and choice of each individual S&C Coach, but the utilization of some type of evaluative method is highly recommended. What is also recommended, if necessary, is a period of athletic performance training preparation. This preparation period of training will ensure that the athlete has achieved the necessary physical qualities of flexibility, muscle, tendon, and joint strength and stability, familiarization and the actual demonstration by the athlete of the proper exercise technique of those to be performed during the training program, as well as the enhancement of the athletes overall general physical conditioning and work capacity.

Preparation for the Training of the Adolescent Athlete

During the yearly training of the adolescent athlete, as previously stated, this young individual should participate and perform in as many different athletic sports and activities as possible. However, the total avoidance of specialization training is also not recommended. The emphasis is placed on GPP vs. sport specialization for a superior variety of stresses applied to the body for eventual adaptation by the athletes neuromuscular system in an attempt to “create” an overall better athlete. The preparation (GPP) vs. specialization guidelines for the adolescent through the early teenage years of training may be reviewed in Table 1.

Age____ Year of Training_____Percent GPP______Percent Specialization

12 __________ 1 _____________ 70–80% ______________ 20-30%

13 __________ 2 _____________ 50-60% ______________ 40-50%

14 __________ 3 _____________ 30-40% ______________ 60-70%

Table 1. General Physical Preparation of the Young Athlete

The appropriate progressive and repetitive practice by the athlete of their actual sports skills performed over time, will support the transfer of these enhanced neuromuscular qualities resulting in an “overall” superior athlete.

Adolescent athletes will initially utilize body weight exercises (i.e. push-ups, pull-ups, squats, etc…) and medicine ball activities during their training program. Rubber bands and other implements may be used to assist in unloading the athlete during the performance of specific exercise activities such as pull-ups, if the athlete cannot perform these types of exercises with their full body weight. When appropriate wooden dowels, PVC pipe, and lightweight bars may be utilized to assist the “eye of the coach” to ensure that proper exercise technique is maintained and/or improved while the application of these additional light intensities will continue to enhance the appropriate amount of applied “stress” for the athletes adaptation from the exercises performed.

Preparation for the Training of the “Older” Athlete

As a S&C Coach begins their work with the “older” (i.e. high school, college, professional) athlete, the biological age and sports skill experience of the individual athlete may not correlate to the same level of athleticism or physical condition/work capacity of these same athletes. These differences, if presented, are undoubtedly a consideration and will certainly have an influence during the planned course of applied stress of performance training for the desired outcome of optimal athletic development. Over the years during multiple conversations with S&C Coaches, and more specifically my friends Al Vermeil, Johnny Parker and Al Miller, I have heard time and time again how often the professional athletes they have worked with were not prepared to train. They have stated how frequently they have had to physically “prepare” many of their professional athletes prior to allowing the athlete participate in their professional teams the off-season S&C program. This is not to insinuate that the athlete’s previous S&C Coach was a poor coach. This is simply stating that at the time the athlete arrived to participate in the team’s off-season S&C program, they were not physically prepared, in the opinion of these coaches, to partake in the teams strenuous off-season training program. We have also had this same experience with some of the college and professional athletes we train at our Performance Center, as this was also often the case during my 10 years as the Head S&C Coach at St. John’s University.

The necessity of an athletes physical “preparation” is especially true of those specific high school, college, and professional athletes that have participated and completed a course of physical rehabilitation prior to their arrival for participation in an Athletic Performance Enhancement Training Program.

I have often heard at lectures, or during my conversations with other S&C Coaches that they don’t have the time to “prepare” the higher level athlete for their off-season athletic performance training program. This “preparation” would take away from the valuable training time that is necessary for the athlete’s actual participation in the specific off-season training program. Many of these coaches have been of the opinion that the athlete should participate in the same off-season program as their teammates, as the athlete will either adapt or not adapt i.e. “sink or swim” during the training process. The obvious response by many coaches would be how could a coach not spend the time to preparing the athlete?

As an example, during the 1980’s Coach Goldstein spent a significant amount of time teaching both Coach Parker and I the value of the overhead squat as both an evaluation and performance training tool. Al Vermeil substantiated this information when he expressed the importance of the overhead squat to me during a conversation that occurred in 1990. If the S&C coach utilizes the overhead squat as an evaluative tool, and a particular athlete demonstrates poor exercise technique, why would an S&C coach apply inappropriately high intensities to the athlete during squat exercise performance when the athlete had previously demonstrated such a poor squat performance? Should an athlete that demonstrates limited shoulder range of motion or poor thoracic mobility be stressed inappropriately and instructed to perform the overhead press or the snatch? Is it reasonable for an S&C Coach to prescribe excessive and inappropriate specific exercise intensity and/or volume when deficits in specific physical qualities and work capacity have been demonstrated? This is especially true when one would consider that these improperly performed exercises (poor technique) are to be performed repeatedly over time where both increases in exercise volumes and intensities will be applied as usually prescribed in any athletes training program design.

Preparation for training of the higher level athlete probably does not occur as often as we would assume. Yet it is very simply achieved in a fairly short period of time. Utilizing methods such as Javorek’s complexes, where an athlete will perform a “cycle” of 5-6 exercises in immediate succession for 6 to 8 reps per exercise and eventually complete 4-6 cycles in a training session is a very effective training method to establish the necessary exercise range of motion (flexibility), muscle and joint strength and stability, familiarity of the exercise performance (technique), and enhance the overall work capacity of the athlete. Initiating the exercise complex at 25% body weight and eventually achieving 40% body weight, as well as instituting activities such as medicine ball and running tempo, etc… depending upon the individual athlete, the GPP may take a total of 2 to 4 weeks to achieve. At that time the athlete will be well prepared for the advanced yet appropriate exercise volumes and intensities required of an off-season performance enhancement training program.

Considerations based upon the athlete’s biological and training (experience) age, athleticism, training experience, and evaluation test results will assist, when necessary, in the program development and prescribed exercise selection to be utilized by the athlete to prepare them prior to the initiation of their performance enhancement training program. Although many of these off-season athletic enhancement training programs may differ, what is certain is that often “preparation” of the athlete is essential to ensure optimal training success. There are coaches with the opinion that they do not have the necessary time to prepare the athlete for off-season training. These coaches will unfortunately likely find that that the athlete will lose that preparation time and perhaps an even greater amount of time when during the training period, the athlete performs poorly, breaks down, and is possibly injured. There is an old saying that states “you can pay me now, or you can pay me later”. We as S&C Coaches should determine the best time to write the check.

- Derek M. Hansen –

Every morning, I get up and proceed to make my breakfast in a bit of a daze. Often, I find myself staring aimlessly at the toaster, waiting for that tumultuous moment when my toast pops up and I’m disappointed with the lack of golden-brown or the excess of black. Yet, in staring at the toaster, I’m often amazed at how little effort has gone into improving or advancing the technology of the toaster. A quick Google search reveals that the modern pop-up toaster was pretty much perfected back in the 1920’s once the right high-resistance nichrome wire was developed and combined with a variable timer.

So, what does my toaster have to do with sport science’s shortcomings? I think we can agree that modern civilization is pretty content with the quality of the toast that is being popped out of $20 toasters. The result is that people are not knocking themselves out trying to improve the toaster, publishing web sites, books or DVD’s with better ideas on how to enhance breakfast. Sport science, on the other hand, is not happy with the quality of “toast”. Sport scientists and pseudo-experts are constantly making claims that they have improved training methods, discovered new techniques and developed new concoctions of sport drinks and supplements to fuel athletes to victory. I am of the mind that what is actually happening is that we are being distracted by all the sport-science “smoke-and-mirrors” and getting away from tried and true methods of training. As the great coach, John Wooden stated, “The worst thing about new books is that they keep us from reading the old ones.”

Charlie Francis had some interesting insights into the world of sport science and research. On one occasion, he emphatically stated that, “Sport scientists should not be telling me what to do as a coach. They should be telling me why what I’m already doing works or doesn’t work!” He went on to say that many, if not most, sport scientists are attempting to answer questions that didn’t need to be asked. In essence, they are trying to improve toast when it doesn’t need to be improved. Or, they were trying to find out if toast was suitable for dinner. Charlie believed that coaches were the innovators because they, not the scientists, were the ones working with athletes on a daily basis and could see the impact of their adjustments and changes on the athletes under real-world conditions – not the artificial environment created by a science experiment.

Let’s take running mechanics for example. On a weekly basis I hear or read about a new technique that has made the rounds. These techniques are often bolstered by marketing efforts that extol the virtues of an “innovative” approach to running. The techniques are given fancy names such as “Pose” or “Chi” running and boast of improved running economy and reduced injury. Dubious studies are conducted in an effort to artificially support the claims of the marketing department, with studies conducted on treadmills under unrealistic conditions with less than suitable subjects. Somewhere in the master plan, a book deal, video series or speaking tour is integrated into the dog and pony show.

When I asked Charlie Francis about the history of running/sprinting technique, he stated, “Things haven’t really changed since the days of Jesse Owens. Certainly the overall volume, frequency and organization of training has evolved, but essentially the actual running technique has not.” This statement was confirmed by my casual research of track and field books from the 1940’s that had descriptions of sprinting and running technique. In most cases, these books provided significantly better descriptions of the techniques of starting, accelerating, sprinting and running than most, if not all, of the books being published today. The only difference was that the athletes of the past had shovels as opposed to starting blocks. It appears that today, many of the sport scientists and “experts” are the ones with the shovels.

Of course, I am presenting a bleak outlook of sport science that perhaps many people to do not want to be shown. Nobody wants to hear that the earth is round, when they all are comfortable with (or are profiting from) the assertion that the earth is flat. And, there are small pockets of scientists and experts that are actually doing fine work. But, there are numerous signs that our society as a whole is regressing in many ways. Provided below are just a few of the phenomena that are facilitating this downward slide and making the world – including the sports world – a dumber place.

- The Internet. While hailed as the “information highway” it has also become a bit of a back-alley of misinformation with questionable reliability. I remember one of my younger track athletes arguing a point with another athlete a few years back. When pushed on his point and sources of information, he replied, “I did my research on the Internet. Of course it’s true!” I had to inform him that the Internet is just a medium that can hold information – much like the inside of a restroom stall. It is up to the individual to adequately confirm the validity of the information and not take it at face value. But that takes effort and persistence. The quest for knowledge is paved with good intentions, but so is the road to hell. If you rely on the Internet for your information, make sure to cross-reference your sources of information, get second and third opinions and avoid being complacent (unless of course you are Googling the history of the household electric toaster).

- Cell phones and, particularly, “smart-phones”. The other day I overheard someone saying, “How did we ever meet up with someone in the crowded Downtown area before cell phones and texting?” I had to restrain myself from yelling in their face, “Plan ahead to meet at an agreed upon location and be there on time you moron!” Ultimately, the oxymoron deemed “smart-phone” is making people dumber. Messaging and texting has replaced meaningful conversation and common sense communication. People rely on using their phone for Google queries to make them appear intelligent at social events. Paying attention in school wasn’t an option, so the mobile phone is now bailing them out. And, people are walking into light posts, stop signs and shopping mall fountains because they are constantly hunched over these devices, lacking awareness of the reality that surrounds them. The fact that iPhone apps are created to teach people how to exercise makes me cringe. If there was an electromagnetic pulse that destroyed all mobile electronic devices, would Western civilization be relegated to being unfit, fatties. Wait – too late!

- GPS. Did you hear the one about the Canadian couple that used their in-vehicle GPS device and ended up lost in the back-country of Nevada for seven weeks while on their way to a convention in Las Vegas. No this is not a joke, but a real news story. The poor husband wandered away from the vehicle and is presumed dead. Drivers rely so heavily on these devices for navigation, that if an evil villain wanted to hack into the GPS units and direct people to drive into the nearest body of water, I am certain that a large percentage of them would most certainly do so. But perhaps Dr. Evil would be doing us all a favour and reducing traffic congestion (but not marine congestion) and raising the average level of societal IQ. Unfortunately, most people couldn’t read a map to save their lives, let alone find their car in a multi-level parkade.

- Spell-check. I mark a good deal of coaching certification assignments each month through a home study program. One coach sent in his assignment with an apology. He wanted to let me know that he was embarrassed about all of the spelling mistakes that I would find in his paper. “The spell check function in my word processing program wasn’t functioning properly!” was his excuse. I held back in my email reply and did not point out the obvious fact that spell checking applications are primarily used for correcting typos and the odd misspelling of a word, not translating his idiotic gibberish into coherent english.

- Reality-television. Why meet someone through the gradual, organic process of friendship, intelligent conversation, common interests and romance when you can surround yourself with random, surgically-altered bimbos in a hot-tub on some exotic island where good taste and class are in short supply. The popularity of such television shows is indicative of the public’s acceptance of mediocrity, lack of creativity and crap. But, I’m sure that more than a few readers of my article will be wondering where they can tune in to the aforementioned program. “Bimbos you say… ?”

The whole point of my rantings is to urge people to build their foundational knowledge based on tried and true methods that have been passed down from coaches who possess experience and wisdom. The ancient masters of sword-making in Japan did not hone their skills by watching YouTube videos. They learned from a master over years, decades and, in some cases, a lifetime, taking the proven techniques of these skilled craftsmen and applying the techniques as intended over time. In some cases, there were subtle innovations that incrementally improved the process. But these changes were introduced carefully and gradually to ensure that the improvement took hold and withstood the scrutiny of other masters. We can be certain that they were not hammering their anvils on top of vibration platforms.

The industries of sport and exercise have much to learn from the ancient masters and, dare I say… the toaster. Discerning minds must maintain techniques and technologies that work, and discard those which are frivolous and propped up by profit seekers and pitchmen. Too many people are dumbing down the public rather than coaching them up. Technology and scientific advances are truly beneficial to the growth and maintenance of society. But technological advancement must be borne out of necessity, not personal agendas.

The next time you make some toast, consider what I have written and make a case for wisdom over Wikipedia, and running… the old fashioned way.

Provided below is a superb article by Robert Panariello on ACL rehab and the implications for running and sprinting. I was fortunate enough to be introduced to Rob by strength coaching legend, Al Vermeil, back in 2003 and have relied on Rob for my mentorship with many aspects of injury prevention and rehabilitation, particularly as it relates to the knee. Rob was generous enough to include me in the credit for the article based on some conversations we have had over the phone and some statistics I sent him on sprinting swing and ground contact times for post-ACL surgery athletes that I have assisted in the past year. I also provided my feedback on optimal heel recovery mechanics during the swing phase. However, the article is entirely the product of Rob’s extensive experience, expertise and passion in the area of ACL rehabilitation which places him amongst the world’s leading experts in the field. Please enjoy…

Preparation of the Athlete for the Running Gait Cycle During the Rehabilitation of the Post-Operative ACL Reconstructed Knee

Robert A. Panariello MS, PT, ATC, CSCS
Professional Orthopedic and Sports Physical Therapy
Professional Athletic Performance Center
New York, New York

Derek Hansen MASc, CSCS
Head Strength and Conditioning Coach
Simon Fraser University
Vancouver, Canada

Running and sprinting are integral components of successful sports participation. There are many situations during athletic competition where the fastest athlete will have a distinct advantage over his/her opponent. An athlete that sustains an ACL injury, resulting in ACL reconstructive surgery, must also participate in the essential post-operative knee rehabilitation that follows. This rehabilitation process includes a systematic progression of exercise application over time, to advance the athlete to the eventual return to the field of play. A vital component to this rehabilitation process is the return of the athlete to running and sprinting activities. Many ACL protocols prohibit the initiation of actual running until the time the athlete is approximately three months post-operative ACL reconstruction. This article will provide the rehabilitation and strength and conditioning professional with techniques that may be safely integrated as part of the post-operative ACL reconstructed knee protocol, prior to this three month post-operative period of time. The appropriate application of these exercise techniques will both advance and enhance the preparation of the athlete for the appropriate period of time when the running gait cycle is initiated as a component of the rehabilitation protocol.

Graft Selection for ACL Reconstruction Surgery

There are various types of grafts available to utilize for the ACL reconstruction of the knee. Some of these grafts include, but are not limited to (a) the central third of the patella tendon, (b) the hamstrings, and (c) the allograft. In planning the post-operative ACL rehabilitation program, it is important to be familiar with the specific graft type that was utilized during the ACL reconstruction, as well as the method of graft fixation. One particular graft, the central third of the patella tendon, will result in a temporary disruption of the extensor mechanism of the knee. This is an important factor for consideration in both the timing and progression of specific exercise application throughout the athlete’s knee rehabilitation and eventual initiation to running activities. This is certainly not to say that the central third patella tendon graft is a poor selection for ACL reconstruction, as for many surgeons this graft selection is their “gold standard”. However the utilization of the central third patella tendon graft may alter various exercise selection as well as the timing of the application of these exercises during the knee rehabilitation program.

The Running Gait Cycle

Briefly described, the running gait cycle is comprised of three phases. The stance phase is the period of time where one foot is in initial contact with the ground surface followed by mid-stance and concluding at toe-off. Simultaneously the opposite lower extremity is involved in the swing phase, the period of time which occurs from toe-off, to forward swing, to ground descent, concluding at the repeated initiation of ground contact. The third phase is the float or flight phase, the period of time where neither lower extremity is in contact with the ground surface area. The focus of this article will be placed on the preparation of the lower extremity for both the stance and swing phases of the running gait cycle prior to the appropriate initiation of running activities during the athlete’s ACL reconstructed knee rehabilitation.

The Stance Phase

The stance phase may be divided into two “sub-phases”. The “absorption” sub-phase is the period between initial ground contact and the full weight bearing of the foot that occurs at mid-stance. Proper foot landing during this sub-phase will minimize the braking forces that may occur with too “hard” a landing, while allowing for efficient absorption of impact forces (potential/elastic energy) during this period of the running cycle.

The “propulsion” sub-phase occurs between the periods of mid-stance and toe-off, where the foot leaves the ground surface area. During this sub-phase the lower extremity utilizes the recoiled (elastic) energy stored in the connective tissues and tendons that occurred during the absorption phase to propel the body forward.

The Swing Phase of the Running Gait

The restoration of full knee joint range of motion (ROM) for both knee flexion and knee extension is a very important factor that should be achieved early in the rehabilitation process. During the athlete’s rehabilitation it is important that full knee flexion be obtained both passively (PROM) and actively (AROM). Although the achievement of both PROM and AROM knee extension is crucial and usually successful, it is unfortunate that the emphasis to regain full knee flexion is often only placed on PROM knee flexion. The restoration of full AROM knee flexion, an essential component for optimal running gait performance, is frequently neglected.

Throughout the performance of the running/sprinting gait cycle it is necessary for the athlete, depending upon the size of their thigh, to place the heel of their swing phase foot at a heel position that is just inferior to their buttock, or at least as close to their buttock as possible. This heel position will ensure a shorter lever arm for optimal swing phase running performance. It should be noted that the most advantageous positioning of the heel is to clear underneath the buttock approximately at the area of the gluteal fold, or as close to this heel position as possible, as opposed to contact directly upon the posterior portion of the buttock. An excessively high heel recovery position (i.e. a heel height higher than the knee following the “toe off” action of the opposite lower extremity) may actually be inefficient. Although this higher positioning of the heel may appear to present a shorter lever arm, it is articulated in a less than optimal position resulting in a greater period of time to complete this phase of the running cycle.

A “deficit” or the larger moment arm that occurs with a heel position at a greater distance from the buttock will result in an abnormal running gait (swing phase) cycle for not only the post-surgical extremity, but also the entire bi-lateral running gait cycle as well. If one phase of the gait cycle is affected, consequently the entire gait cycle will also be affected.

Optimal Postural Positioning for the Achievement of Passive Knee Flexion

Full passive knee flexion (PROM) is achieved prior to full active knee flexion (AROM). Achieving PROM knee angles ensures that these same knee ROM angles may also be achieved actively. It is preferred that the athlete achieve full knee PROM in the prone position. The prone position will ensure optimal elasticity and flexibility of the soft connective tissue and musculature of the anterior hip/pelvis as well as the extensor mechanism of the knee as the heel of the post-operative lower extremity is eventually placed upon the same side buttock. Due to the presence of hip flexion, the successful achievement of full PROM knee flexion in the seated or long seated position will not have the same affect on these same soft tissue structures and may prolong the achievement of full AROM knee flexion.

Exercises to Improve AROM Knee Flexion

Full knee AROM should occur in the standing position, as this body position most specific to the running gait cycle. When appropriate, a simple recommended exercise progression to perform for the achievement of standing full AROM knee flexion i.e. heel to buttock, would include, but is not limited to the following exercises:

Standing knee flexion, standing butt kicks (knee down progressing to knee up), standing stationary single leg “Fast Claw” or Pawing” drills, walking butt kicks (performed initially with the knee down progressing to knee up), “A” marches, butt kicks (knee up), and “A” skips.

Marching ‘A’ Drill from Running Mechanics on Vimeo.

Skipping ‘A’ Drill from Running Mechanics on Vimeo.

Running ‘A’ Drill from Running Mechanics on Vimeo.

Rehabilitation exercise programming may also include the combination and alternating of both PROM activities with AROM activities. For example a PROM knee flexion activity followed by an AROM exercise activity such as butt kicks, to assist to enhance the exercise performance for the achievement of full AROM knee flexion.

The Stretch Shortening Cycle, Elastic Energy, and Muscle Stiffness Considerations for the ACL Rehabilitation Program Design

The Stretch Shortening Cycle (SSC)

It has been well documented that a vertical jump preceded by a countermovement (i.e. prestretch), will increase vertical displacement above a squat jump (one with no prestretch). This phenomenon, which is termed the stretch shortening cycle (SSC), describes an eccentric phase or stretch followed by an isometric transitional period (amortization phase) that concludes into an explosive concentric action. Aside from the enhanced concentric contraction, the SSC also affords the athlete a reduction in metabolic cost of movement during activities that require repetitive movement with ground contact over time (i.e. distance running).

The SSC is synonymous with the term “plyometrics”. The running gait cycle is one of the purest forms of all plyometric activities, having been described as a series of alternating hops from one leg to another. During the participation of athletic competition, the athlete must produce strong and efficient (economical) propulsive forces for optimal sprinting and distance running performance. The restoration of an “optimal” SCC, including all contributory components of the SSC, is essential during the rehabilitation process.

Elastic Energy

During the performance of physical activities such as hopping, jumping, and running the lower extremities exhibit similar characteristics to a spring, whereby the “lower extremity spring” compresses upon ground contact and stores energy prior to rebounding at push-off and releasing energy. The period (phase) of “amortization” occurs between the periods of storage and release of energy and is the time of actual ground contact. The amortization phase is crucial for the best possible transfer of energy to occur, as the duration of the amortization phase must be kept to a minimum.

It is currently recognized that the muscle tendon is the primary site for the storage of this potential (elastic) energy (EE) because of the ability of the tendon to extend/stretch and store energy, recoil and release (kinetic) energy. If fact, specifically in regard to running performance, it is important to note that research has demonstrated that at least half of the elastic energy utilized for the forward propulsion of the body, comes from the Achilles and foot tendons.

In the authors’ review of high speed video “observations” of post-operative ACL knee reconstruction athletes, increased ground contact times occur with both the stance (absorption) phase of the running cycle as well as comparatively increased hopping activity ground contact times from very low (3” to 4”) heights. It appears that due to the absence of appropriate levels of elastic strength and muscle stiffness, a protective mechanism is established by positioning the foot with increased ankle plantar flexion, when compared to the non-surgical extremity, at the time of ground contact. This increase in ankle plantar flexion is an effort to “dampen” the ground contact forces in an attempt to reduce impact forces upon the knee resulting in a negative impact on elasticity, speed, and power production.

The increased ground contact time observed during the post-operative ACL reconstructed lower extremity will also result in a significant change in leg swing mechanics during the running gait cycle. Due to the fact that running is a cyclical activity, any increase in the ground contact time (stance phase) of the post-operative lower extremity must be balanced out by changes in the swing cycle time of the opposite (non-operative) lower extremity to preserve the equilibrium in the running gait cycle. This may result in an inappropriate and less efficient non-surgical lower extremity swing phase mechanics during the athlete’s running performance. The combination of increased ground contact time (post-operative lower extremity) in addition to the less efficient swing phase mechanics (non-operative lower extremity) will most likely result in diminished running/sprinting performance.

It should also be noted that once the eccentric loading (i.e. stretch phase) reaches a critical threshold, the subsequent concentric contraction will exhibit no further increases in force output (EE) and may even result in a diminished return of a reduced force output. This is likely due to the increased amortization phase, or simply put, the change from eccentric contraction to the propulsive concentric contraction taking too long a period of time to occur. This extended period of amortization results in EE to be lost as heat energy and therefore is not available for the ensuing concentric contraction.

Muscle and Tendon Stiffness

Muscle and tendon stiffness may be defined as the property of a system to resist an applied stretch. One may also review Hooke’s law, which refers to deformable bodies when affected by external forces. When external forces are not present, these bodies maintain their constant shape. However, when an external force is applied, these bodies generate elastic force to oppose the externally applied force thus can both store and return elastic energy.

When describing stiffness within a muscle and tendon it is important to note that stiffness within a tendon is constant while stiffness within a muscle is variable and is dependant upon the forces exerted, i.e. a muscle is compliant when passive yet stiff when active. Through the progression of strength training and plyometric exercise, it is possible to develop high forces as well as high levels of stiffness in muscles, often higher than that of tendons. For example, knee joint stiffness or the ability to resist flexion has been demonstrated to be crucial to performance after drop (in-depth) jumps. In such a scenario, whereby a stiffer muscle does not stretch, the tendon will be forced to. Higher levels of muscle stiffness will increase the levels of stored and reused EE, resulting in increases in jumping and running performance.

Interestingly, lower extremity stiffness largely depends on ankle stiffness and joint stiffness generally depends on antagonistic co-contraction. These in turn are regulated by the muscle tension at the time of landing/ground contact. As an example, the co-contraction between both the plantar flexor and dorsi flexor muscles of the ankle, in conjunction with the co-contraction of the extensor and flexor muscles of the knee will result in increased total lower extremity joint stiffness in the preparation for ground impact. As running speed increases so does an increase of the pre-activation of plantar flexors and knee extensors resulting in an increase in muscle-tendon complex stiffness and the ability to both tolerate and absorb high impact loads. It has been demonstrated that individuals with superior lower extremity and ankle stiffness exhibit shorter ground contact time (GCT) and longer aerial time while hopping.

The Development of Muscle Stiffness

Strength Training

The initial development (restoration) of muscle stiffness will occur with strength training to appropriate muscle groups. The preferred exercise “category” of choice, when appropriate, would be closed kinetic chain activities performed initially from the bi-lateral stance position. When the athlete demonstrates appropriate strength levels and exercise proficiency, exercise “variation” may then be progressed if desired and appropriate, to include single leg closed kinetic chain PRE activities as well.

What is also required to develop muscle stiffness is load. Research has demonstrated that heavier loads (intensities) lifted during exercise performance will result in greater gains in both muscle strength and stiffness. Special caution should be taken with the programming of applied high weight exercise intensities as to not place the athlete at increased risk of injury. Stiffness is also achieved with not only increased loading but with increased rate of loading. Lighter weights lifted at higher rates of acceleration will also contribute to enhance muscle stiffness.

Strength training should precede plyometric training to develop the levels of strength necessary to reduce the probability of tendon injuries, as well as increase the necessary stiffness required to enhance the development of elastic strength. As strength and stiffness levels increase over time, the athlete will increase their ability to apply the optimal levels of force into the ground surface area, as well as optimally utilize the SSC during exercise performance safely.

Developing Elastic Strength

Ankling Exercises

During the “pre-running” rehabilitation process, the initiation of ankling activities may be incorporated, when appropriate, for the preparation of elastic strength development, which is necessary for successful running performance. As previously stated at least half of the elastic energy utilized for the forward propulsion of the body, comes from the Achilles and foot tendons. It is also well documented that leg stiffness largely depends on ankle stiffness. “Ankling” exercises are a low-level plyometric activity that teach the athlete to apply rapid repetitive low level ground contact forces while also developing both stiffness and elastic energy (SSC) qualities of the muscles and tendons of the ankle and foot.

Ankling Drill from Running Mechanics on Vimeo.

The performance of these low impact close kinetic chain ankling exercises takes place with the knee and lower extremity placed in a protective position of full knee extension. Therefore, compression forces at the tibio-femoral joint in association with the mechanical advantage of the “screw-home” mechanism of the knee, most often allow for the safe incorporation of pain-free ankling type (plyometric) activities early in the rehabilitation process.

Conclusion

It is essential for the ACL reconstructed athlete to participate in a prescribed post-operative rehabilitation program for the eventual return to formal athletic performance training, participation in the daily athletic practice for the enhancement of their specific athletic skills, and concluding with the eventual return to athletic competition. The implementation of the running gait cycle is an essential element to this rehabilitation and athletic performance training process. The appropriate and prompt return of active knee flexion ROM, as well as the enhancement of both muscle stiffness and the elastic strength components of the lower extremity SSC, will better prepare the athlete for the time of the appropriate initiation of the running gait cycle as part of the ACL reconstructed knee rehabilitation protocol.

References

1. Bosco C, Montanari G, Ribacchi R, Giovenali P, Latteri F, Iachelli G, Faina M, Coli R, Dal Monte A, Las Rosa M, Cortelli G, and Saibene F. Relationship Between the Efficiency of Muscular Work During Jumping and the Energetic of Running. Eur J Apply Physiol 56: 138 – 143, 1987.

2. Butler RJ, Crowell HP, and Davis IM. Lower Extremity Stiffness; Implications for Performance and Injury. Clin Biomech 18: 511 – 517, 2003.

3. Cavagna GA, Komarek L, and Mazzoleni S. The Mechanics of Sprint Running. J Appl Physiol 217: 709 – 721, 1971.

4. Cavagna GA, Saibene FP, and Margaria R. Effect of Negative Work on the Amount of Positive Work Performed by an Isolated Muscle. J Appl Physiol 20: 157 – 158, 1965.

5. Chu D. Personal Conversation

6. Hobara H, Kimura K, Omuro K, Gomi K, Muraoka T, Iso S, and Kanosue K. Determinants of Difference in Leg Stiffness Between Endurance and Power-Trained Athletes. J Biomech 41: 506 – 514, 2008.

7. Kubo K, Kawakami Y, and Fukunaga T. Influence of Elastic Properties of Tendon Structures on Jump Performance in Humans. J Appl Physiol 87: 2090 – 2096, 1999.

8. Vermeil A. Personal Conversation

9. Wilson GJ, Murphy AJ, and Pryor JF. Musculotendinous Stiffness: It’s Relationship to Eccentric, Isometric, and Concentric Performance. J Appl Physiol 76: 2714 – 2719, 1994

- Derek M. Hansen -

The longer I work with athletes and the non-athlete population, the more I recognize the importance of managing muscle tone on a daily basis. For the lay- person, it is unfortunate that the term “muscle tone” has been associated with making muscles more aesthetically pleasing to the eye. You will often hear someone remark at how they need to “tone-up” the muscles of their stomach, arms or buttocks before heading off on their beach resort vacation. In actual fact, many people simply need to reduce the layer of fatty tissue covering the muscle below. While they may actually have highly toned muscles, their poor eating habits are likely ruining their chances of showing off their hidden “ripped” physique. The concept of muscle tone, however, has greater implications for general health, comfort and, of course, sporting performance. Learning more about how to manage your muscle tone can change your life for the better.

General Definitions of Muscle Tone

I was originally introduced to the concept of muscle tone or “tonus” from my readings of Charlie Francis (Speed Trap and the Charlie Francis Training System) back in the late 1980’s and a chance opportunity to hear him speak in 1986. He presented the concept of muscle tone in one of two different contexts: firstly with muscle preparedness for performance and secondly with the status of muscle in relation to fatigue, recovery and dysfunction. In my many discussions with Coach Francis, he defined muscle tone as the ratio of fired to unfired fibers within a given resting muscle. Thus, a muscle with high tone has a higher proportion of fired fibers versus unfired fibers. Accordingly, a muscle with low tone has a higher proportion of unfired fibers. A muscle with higher tone will give the appearance of being partially contracted and may look more visually appealing to the beach crowd. So, the next time you are using your Thigh-Master to “tone-up your thighs,” it is quite possible – given an appropriately lengthy workout – you are actually increasing the muscle tone in your thighs.

Other definitions of muscle tone have a similar message. Most of them discuss muscle tone as a partially contracted state of muscle that assists with posture and/or maintains the muscle in a constant state of readiness. Muscle tone is most commonly cited in literature on specific neuromuscular diseases such as cerebral palsy (CP). The symptoms of CP in children are often severe and wide ranged, including spasticity (extremely high muscle tone) and impaired motor organization and functioning, including deficits in sitting, standing, locomotion and daily living skills. Damage to the brain in stroke patients also can result in hypertonicity (high muscle tone) and abnormal reflex reactions making walking difficult. I have also worked with a number of elderly patients with cognitive deficits (advanced dementia) who exhibit extremely high muscle tone, even though they are relatively immobile. Strategies designed to reduce muscle tone (i.e. massage, hydrotherapy and static stretching) have shown promise in managing muscle tone in these patients. In patients with Down Syndrome, abnormally low muscle tone can be problematic, impacting their ability to hold posture. Research in all of these areas can help to improve our knowledge of muscle tone management when dealing with both athletes and the general population.

The implications for appropriate muscle tone are tremendous when talking about training and performance. A muscle with relatively high tone can be useful when you are trying to harness the elasticity of the muscle-tendon complex for explosive movements and high-speed sports. However, a muscle with extremely high tone can be problematic when a high degree of muscular coordination is required. High-speed coordinated movements require an ability to contract and relax muscles (agonists and antagonists) in an efficiently sequenced pattern, providing a combination of stiffness, movement and suppleness within tenths or even hundredths of a second. A muscle with extremely high tone cannot provide the relaxation and coordinated control required for these movements and can result in poor movement patterns and, even worse, severe injury. This complexity of tone can be seen with running related hamstring injuries, where the velocity of movement and coordination of contraction must be precise to not only provide powerful hip extension and smooth knee flexion, but also strong co-contraction on ground contact. A high proportion of muscle fiber must be available to fire in order for a sprinting stride to be executed properly and safely.

In terms of muscle readiness for high-speed events, such as the 100 meter sprint, an athlete wants to have a measured degree of elevated muscle tone to provide the stiffness for the rapid ground contacts and elasticity required to attain and maintain maximum velocity. There has been a lot of discussion and research recently regarding “potentiation” of muscles for speed and power. In most cases, I believe these routines are primarily raising muscle tone and stiffening the musculo-tendon systems for force production and high-speed movements. In the past, a well-coordinated warm-up routine would provide a similar effect.

Assessment and Measurement of Muscle Tone

Once I discovered the importance of muscle tone on everyday function and performance, I was eager to determine a method for measuring muscle tone. Using my portable surface electromyograph (EMG) device, I found that I could not accurately record changes in resting muscle activity, regardless of amplification power. The background “noise,” caused by surrounding electrical devices (i.e. lights, computer, radio) created a stronger signal than any level of high muscle tone generated by the nervous system. So, I was not able to independently measure muscle tone changes through electronic means.

My further readings in the area of electromyography determined that no single form of EMG (surface or intramuscular) could adequately detect a signal from resting muscle tone. This result generated an interesting question. Would a person with extremely high muscle tone be consuming significant amounts of nervous energy while at rest? If we eliminated the high muscle tone condition, would this person have more energy for productive activities and even experience a high quality of sleep and rest? I persisted with this line of questioning despite the writings of J.V. Basmajian in Muscles Alive:

“Most neurophysiologists now agree that electromyography shows conclusively the complete relaxation of normal human striated muscle at rest. In other words, by relaxing a muscle, a normal human being can abolish neuromuscular activity in it. This does not mean there is no “tone” (or “tonus”) in skeletal muscle, as some enthusiasts have claimed. It does mean, however, that the usual definition of “tone” should be modified to state that the general tone of a muscle is determined both by the passive elasticity or turgor of muscle (and fibrous) tissues and by the active (though not continuous) contraction of muscle in response to the reaction of the nervous system to stimuli. Thus, at complete rest, a muscle has not lost its tone even though there is no neuromuscular activity in it.”

Some of the best writing on muscle tone can be found on a web site provided by Neurosoma. Neurosoma appears to be a therapeutic technique designed to address high muscle tone (often referred to as hypertonia) and the negative effects of such a condition. I know nothing about the Neurosoma technique, but was impressed with the unprecedented information presented on their site regarding muscle tone. They regard hypertonia as muscle tone run amok – the muscles are unable to relax. Hypertonia results in numerous other problems, many of which are associated with joint pain and dysfunction, as well as nerve impingements. The Neurosoma site describes muscle tone as contractions that are “turning on and off, but overlapping so smoothly and steadily, with no spiking contractions, that the electromyography doesn’t read it. In regular skeletal muscle contraction of course, the EMG shows muscle contraction very clearly as spikes, and can measure how many pulses per second as well as the strength of each pulse.” So, by their definition, there may actually be nervous system involvement in resting muscle tone. However, it is so subtle that it does not create the spike normally detected by EMG.

I personally find it hard to believe that there is absolutely no neuromuscular activity in a high muscle tone subject. My own personal findings measuring Heart Rate Variability (HRV) pre- and post-treatment have shown that activities such as massage and passive static stretching significantly reduce the involvement of the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight response). Athletes quickly demonstrate a strong parasympathetic response (rest and digest response) as a result of these activities. My conclusions: a relationship does exist between muscle tone and nervous system output and status. Muscle loosening and enhanced range of motion are the result of these muscular therapies and subjects also note an improved quality of sleep and a general sense of well-being. Could it be that reducing muscle tone in healthy individuals actually reduces the amount of nervous system stress they incur throughout the day and night?

Perhaps the easiest method of determining muscle tone status is to simply use your hands to touch the muscle and perform passes along the muscle. I will do this on a daily basis with athletes who I suspect are at risk for injury based on their abnormally elevated muscle tone. With very little experience, you can quickly detect excessively high muscle tone in an athlete. In one specific case, a muscular football running back I was working with had abnormally high muscle tone in his quadriceps, hamstrings and glutes, resulting in significant knee and hip pain. Despite several hours of massage and carefully applied static stretching, we could only manage a minor reduction in resting muscle tone. After several days of investigation, I finally discovered the athlete had a prescription for Adderall, a drug used for treatment of Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). Many ADD medications act as stimulants and can elevate the sympathetic nervous system and, hence, increase resting muscle tone. A reduction in the dosage for this medication helped to effect a more manageable resting muscle tone, relieving the chronic joint pain experienced by this athlete. He also responded much more favorably to soft-tissue treatment.

Other methods of assessment include basic observation, including assessing biomechanics of movement and listening for heavy foot-falls during running. Athletes that are fighting the internal resistance of their own musculature will demonstrate obvious signs of biomechanical inefficiency. You will also visually and audibly notice a plodding gait, as opposed to a light, efficient stride. These athletes will also commonly experience a greater degree of soreness and more prolonged soreness following training due to their higher levels of muscle tension.

My research also revealed that one company has also created a state of the art myotonometer that can accurately measure resting muscle tone. This myotonometer is produced by Neurogenic Technologies, Inc. and “quickly quantifies muscle stiffness, muscle tone, muscle compliance, muscle strength and the level of severity of the spastic condition.”

Unfortunately, the price tag for this novel item was much too high to justify replacing my simple “hands-on” assessment technique. However, such as device could prove to be invaluable for an accurate measure of muscle tone in comparison studies (i.e. effect of different therapies on reducing muscle tone).

Implications of Inappropriate Muscle Tone

The muscles and soft-tissues of the body are designed to generate force, but they are also intended to absorb force and reduce wear-and-tear on the skeletal structures and joints. Similar to the suspension on a car, the muscles and tendons should provide stability and support, while not allowing the “vehicle” to shake itself apart. Athletes with very high muscle tone are susceptible to a series of problems if their muscles and soft-tissues are not managed appropriately. Provided below are a number of problems that can originate from excessively high muscle tone:

- Knee pain. There are many different causes of knee pain and unless you are installing hardwood floors on a daily basis, the cause of the pain can be directly related to high muscle tone in the surrounding structures. Runners can experience lateral muscle tightness (in the vastus lateralis and the iliotibial tract) that places asymmetrical stress on the patella, impacting its tracking. Tightness and discomfort can appear within the knee, as well as in the patellar tendon between the bottom of the patella and the top of the tibia. Knee pain can also come from an imbalance in tone between the quadriceps and hamstrings resulting in significant imbalances during eccentric movements where significant co-contraction is required. While many believe that over-active quadriceps are the culprit, many times the high tone in the hamstrings does not allow for enough available muscle fibers to fire appropriately to balance the co-contraction. The result is more sheer stress on the knee joint, significant discomfort and the potential for ligament injury.

- Low back pain. The muscle tone of the large hip flexors, known as the iliopsoas muscles, can play a significant role in chronic low back pain. These muscles are responsible for a variety of functions including hip flexion, spinal support and torso rotation. The iliopsoas attachment points originate in the lower thoracic and lumbar spine and can put tremendous stress on the lower vertebrae as resting muscle tone elevates and the overall muscle shortens. Individuals who sit for long periods of time (i.e. cyclists, office workers, drivers) will experience significant low back discomfort as their hip flexor muscles shorten and place more tension on the lower back.

Athletes with extremely high muscle tone in their gluteal muscles will also experience low back discomfort. Many sports involve a lowering of the center of mass, involving the gluteal muscles and quadriceps. If the glutes are not functioning properly (due to high muscle tone) athletes will tend to bend over more at the back, rather than squat down. This action puts more stress on the lower back muscles by transferring a load that is typically handled by the stronger gluteal muscles. Because these muscles are so strong, elevated muscle tone in the gluteal muscles can result in significant discomfort along the pelvic crest and into the lower back. I believe that sacro-iliac (SI) joint mobility is also compromised, locked into place by hypertonic gluteal muscles, transferring more stress into the lower back and hamstrings during explosive movements.

- Shoulder pain. Because the shoulder is such a complex joint with multiple muscles controlling and stabilizing the shoulder structure, small changes in muscle tone in individual component parts can drastically change the health and stability of the shoulder. This is particularly true in cases of throwing athletes who move their arm in a high-velocity, ballistic fashion. My personal experience has shown that while others may claim the shoulder needs to be strengthened, often the shoulder exhibits extremely high tone in specific areas rendering those muscles ineffective and not available for contraction. In actuality, the shoulder may need to be treated in such a way to reduce muscle tone and enhance recruitment of key stabilizers and prime movers. In throwing athletes (i.e. baseball, football quarterback, javelin), often the posterior muscles used in decelerating the arm exhibit extremely high muscle tone. The shoulder is “thrown” out of balance and the forward motion of throwing is resisted by the antagonists. Soft-tissue treatment of the posterior muscles can often yield relief to referring pain the anterior muscles.

- Shinsplints. Unless you have been kicked in the tibia by a steel-toe boot, it is likely your shin pain during and after running is caused by extremely high muscle tone in the calves. The tightness in the compartments of the lower leg can create pain in the shins on two levels: firstly by placing extreme tension on the attachment points along the tibia and, secondly, by eliminating the contractile abilities of the calf muscles and reducing the shock-absorbing abilities of the foot and lower leg. Each stride results in magnified lower-leg trauma on foot contact, perpetuating the shin-splint problem. Until the muscle tone in the lower leg is reduced, there will not be enough available muscle fiber to dampen the force of ground contact, regardless of how much money you spend on footwear. A period of time must be taken where running volume is significantly reduced, and proper soft-tissue therapy is administered on a regular basis.

- Plantar fasciitis. Similar to shinsplints, problems in the foot typically originate from high muscle tone in the lower leg and calf. The muscles of the calf are continuous – via connective tissue – with the muscles of the foot. If the calves tighten and shorten excessively, the strength, mechanics and durability of the foot muscles can be compromised. Additionally, any dysfunction within the calf can lead to a redistribution of force to other areas such as the hip and foot. At some point, the compensational shift will lead to a volume overload in these areas and result in another soft-tissue problem.

Once you understand the impact of muscle tone changes, the rehabilitation process becomes a much more straightforward process of restoring healthy muscle tone in various areas of the body. There are many instances when injury symptoms persist well beyond the stage of tissue healing and strengthening. Proper comfort and coordination can only be restored when all muscles are in balance and have the available fiber to recruit when needed.

Methods of Managing Muscle Tone

There are many methods available to manage muscle tone. Your ultimate choice of method may depend on your patience, financial means, pain tolerance and/or personal skill-set. Many people rely on a combination of methods used in a specific sequence throughout the week. Whatever your choice, you have to recognize that you will need to implement that method or combination of methods on a regular basis, as muscle tone must be managed on a daily basis for the rest of your life if you wish to maximize your quality of life. Some of the methods that you may wish to implement in your regular program of muscle tone management are provided below.

Basic Massage

The basic action of passing over the muscles during a massage will help to reduce muscle tone over the duration of the treatment. A more superficial surface massage will have a minor impact, while a deeper treatment will have a more profound impact on reducing overall muscle tone. The impact of massage is best described by Charlie Francis’ overview of the approach to preparing for the 100-meter sprint at the Olympics. The initial massages administered by a therapist leading into the Olympic Games will be of a deeper nature, because the athlete does not want to have their muscle tone at too high a level. If the muscle tone is too high during the tapering training sessions and the initial qualifying round of the competition, the athlete will not only fatigue much more quickly, but may also be at higher risk of injury over multiple repetitions and races. As the athlete progresses past the initial qualifying race, the massage will become more superficial in nature, facilitating blood flow while not reducing muscle tone. Higher muscle tone is desirable for the more highly contested heats of the competition as it allows for greater force production and elasticity due to greater stiffness in the soft-tissues, particularly in the lower leg and feet. Prior to the final of the 100 meters, the massage tends to be administered in more of a slapping nature, enhancing athlete alertness with no risk of reducing tone. Well after a competition has been completed, deep tissue massage can be used to bring muscle tone down and separate muscle adhesions. The process is akin to that taken by a Formula 1 racing mechanical crew when they dismantle the racecar’s power plant to clean the engine components, replace the fluids and replace worn parts.

Massage can be considered a fundamental tool for the management of muscle tone. It not only serves as a treatment method, but also a valuable diagnostic tool. Regular massage can keep the muscles in good working order and provide a coach, athlete and therapist with a consistent status check between workouts and competitions.

Deep Tissue Massage

While not as comfortable as a regular massage, some individuals prefer to undergo the masochistic route of intensive deep tissue massage. While regular massage will tend to coax the muscle into “releasing” through a series of passes and movements that facilitate circulation, stretching and relaxation, deep tissue works aggressively, using thumbs, knuckles and elbows to over-stimulate the muscles and fatigue them into releasing their contraction. Although deep tissue massage and other similar methods such as “Rolfing” yield effective results, rendering the subject into a mere jellyfish of soft-tissue, it can be an unbelievably painful experience. Some argue that aggressive methods that fatigue the nervous system can have negative implications for long-term muscle tone management. Some patients have relapses that involve a more aggressive return of spasticity within 24-48 hours of the original treatment. However, others swear by these treatments and boast to their friends about how their therapist manhandles them every week.

Static Stretching

Static stretching has long been a basic means of relaxing muscle tissue and restoring resting muscle length. Studies documenting the use of static stretching in warm-up prior to explosive activities prove that static stretching can reduce muscle tone dramatically. Subjects that have undertaken a static stretching routine immediately prior to sprint or vertical jump tests have demonstrated significant reductions in performance. This result mirrors the guidelines for muscle tone management provided by Charlie Francis over 30 years ago using massage at major 100-meter competitions. Higher muscle tone is preferable for the 100-meter final.

Given that static stretching is an effective means of reducing muscle tone, how come there is still ongoing debate over how it should be performed? My work several years ago with a therapist named Nikos Apostolopoulos provided me with greater insight into the application of a passive method of static stretching. His use of a stretching method developed by himself, known as “Microstretching,” involved specific stretching exercises held for 60 seconds at an extremely low level of muscle tension. While everyone else was pushing and pulling their way to painful, excessive ranges of motion and muscle tension, Apostolopoulos was achieving great reproducible results by erring on the side of less tension and being patient. The passive stretches were reducing muscle tone by not triggering the muscle spindle fibers and not creating pain and discomfort that could adversely arouse the sympathetic nervous system. The result was a muscle that had reduced tone and restored resting length.

Effective static stretching demands incredible awareness on the part of the individual performing the stretch. Anyone can push a stretch as hard as possible, but it takes a skilled individual to understand how little tension is required to effect a productive stretch. When you move a limb through its range of motion, stretching of the tissues occurs well before your conscious self detects any tangible feeling of stretch or elongation. It is this zone of the unconscious awareness of a stretch where individuals will find the best results when seeking muscle tone reduction.

Acupuncture

While I have limited personal experience with acupuncture and related therapies (i.e. intramuscular electrotherapy), I am well aware that this method has worked effectively to reduce muscle tone for thousands of years. Traditional Chinese medicine practitioners have long put forward the notion of the flow of energy (or “Chi”) through the body and the use of acupuncture to eliminate disruptions in the circulation of energy and restore the proper energy flow. Charlie Francis was convinced that the use of needles in acupuncture created an electro-chemical reaction in and around the area of a motor point that influenced the muscle’s ability to de-contract and relax. His comment to me was that the results of acupuncture couldn’t be about the exact insertion of the needle into a specific part of the muscle. “Even people who are inexperienced at acupuncture are getting significant results, when I know they are not close to hitting the motor point like the experienced practitioners,” he would tell me. “So, it must be that the needles are doing what the ancient Chinese physicians were telling us and rechanneling electrical impulses that control muscle contraction and tone.” His assertion is supported by use of both surface electronic muscle stimulation and intramuscular electronic muscle stimulation – both of which achieve significant results on a regular basis despite less than exact placement of pads and needles.

Trigger Point Therapy and Related Approaches

For those of you who cannot stand the thought of having a needle inserted several inches into your muscles, there are less invasive ways of stimulating motor points. Use of the fingers can be quite effective for targeting motor points that control muscle activation. Acupressure techniques are used across several manual therapy techniques to stimulate motor points and achieve a release in muscle spasm or undesirable contraction. As with any manual therapy technique, there are good practitioners and those that are not so good. Look for a therapist that is more concerned about locating the correct motor points and strategically targeting the muscle tissue in a progressive manner. Many therapists will opt for jamming their elbow into your soft-tissues and watching you squirm. It won’t take long for you to find out what kind of therapist you have landed. Effective soft-tissue therapy does not need to be a torture session. If you do not want to pay someone to inflict punishment on your body, you can take something as simple as a tennis ball or foam roller and use it to find key motor points to effect a muscle release.

Electronic Muscle Stimulation (EMS)

I have found myself in situations where I did not have the time or energy to employ massage and stretching on an athlete that had significantly tight glutes and hips. Many of the deep muscles were extremely tight, but also inaccessible to hands-on techniques because of the various tight layers of superficial muscle covering them. Using the “peeling the onion” technique of working the outer layers in order to address the inner layers would require hours of hands-on work and result in significant personal exhaustion. In these cases, I have deferred to the use of different forms of electrotherapy to treat the deeper muscle tightness. I have used low-frequency, alternating current electronic muscle stimulation to fatigue spastic muscle into relaxation. I have experienced some limited success with interferential current to facilitate muscle relaxation. And, I have employed pulsed direct current (PDC) at relatively high frequencies and intensities to effect significant muscle loosening. These electrotherapy techniques have worked well as pre-cursors to other forms of muscle tone reduction, allowing for more effective stretching and massage with more compliant tissues.

>> Click here for 3 free ebooks on Electrical Muscle Stimulators and their benefits!

Myofascial Release/Stretching

I have also noticed that athletes and non-athletes with high muscle tone exhibit a corresponding fascial (muscle sheath) tightness that can exacerbate overall tightness and muscle restrictions. Evidence indicates that there is constant “communication” between the muscle and its surrounding tissue compartment, providing stiffness and support for both posture and movement. When the muscle tissue experiences significant trauma – either through the volume and/or intensity of contraction – both muscle and fascia interact in a manner that stiffens the entire system, also involving the tendons that are an extension of the myofascial continuum. While this stiffness of muscle and fascia should be a short-term adjustment, many times the tightness can persist over the long term, creating significant restriction and discomfort. Conventional massage and static stretching may help to relieve a portion of the tightness, but special care must be taken to stretch the fascial anatomical structures, thereby allowing the underlying muscle tissue to de-contract and restore resting length. Numerous myofascial release techniques are available to assist individuals in self-treatment, as well as guide them to experienced practitioners who can help them “unwind.” These techniques can accompany a general program of muscle loosening and tone reduction.

Concluding Remarks

It is apparent that awareness and knowledge of appropriate muscle tone is a key element of athlete preparation and recovery. Athletes that employ methods that control muscle tone for the different situations that arise in training, competition and recovery will not only be more successful, but also minimize their risk of injury. It is also important for coaches to understand how muscle tone can elevate during different phases of training, influenced by training volume, hardness of playing surfaces, stress experienced outside of training, and environmental conditions (i.e. temperature, altitude, humidity). Coaches must then assume a flexible approach that not only adapts the training methods, but also introduces greater recovery and regeneration techniques to manage muscle tone.

For the average person, lack of activity can elevate tone as significantly as too much activity. Regular exercise and stretching can help to offset abnormally high muscle tone. Prolonged sitting or standing can lead to significant problems related to chronic pain in the neck, lower back, hips, knees and feet. Since a good portion of the population is required to sit or stand in their daily jobs, it is important to address your muscle tone changes on a daily basis. This does not mean that you need to get daily massages, but it does mean that everyone should have a strategy for enhancing their muscle health and appropriately managing muscle tone. A good place to start is by referencing a basic anatomy book to determine location of muscles and relevant attachment points. Once you have a good understanding of functional anatomy, it is much easier to successfully treat soft-tissue injuries and related joint pain using basic principles of muscle tone management.

- Derek M. Hansen –

On a daily basis, I am fascinated as I observe my two young kids interact with each other and their environment, negotiating various situations and challenges that arise. I am always particularly interested in how they deal with the situation of an injury (i.e. scrape, cut, abrasion) and getting hurt during the process of play. Simply falling down can elicit a response that includes lots of crying and wailing, despite the severity of the fall. The magnitude of the response often mirrors their mental state or level of tiredness or hunger at the time of the incident. I have specifically tuned into how much they like the idea of having a band-aid applied to their “boo-boo” and how much comfort and security it brings them. Regardless of how much actual benefit the band-aid brought them, it made the difference between a sobbing mess and them continuing on with their business. The injury itself had not changed, and the amount of actual pain they felt (as opposed to perceived pain) was no different. The band-aid was a miracle cure in their minds.

This phenomenon got me to thinking about the different fixes that we see in sporting life, including knee braces, orthotics, tape jobs, neoprene sleeves, supplements and other medicines. So much effort is put into treating an injury – for better or for worse – in ways that simply give the perception of safety, healing and/or improvement. Whether or not actual improvement is occurring is debatable. The same could be said for many physical training regimes. Perception is more important than reality in the minds of many individuals. There appears to be no difference in the psychology behind many treatments and applications – regardless if you are a young child or a mature adult. Among all humans, band-aids and placebos work.

Some modern examples of fixes for athletes can include the following:

Knee braces

In many sports, you will see athletes training and competing with the use of a knee brace. These braces can take the form of fitted neoprene sleeves with an array of supporting straps or cyborg-like braces with carbon-fiber framing and titanium hinges. In all cases, these devices are advertised as providing protection and support while allowing the athlete to perform and move adequately in their sport. In my experience, an individual must spend a good deal of money to get a customized brace that fits appropriately and provides the specific support that is needed. In practice, I see lots of knee sleeves and straps that provide compression and perhaps even warmth, but not much in the way of support. In the case of rigid braces, I see lots of poorly fitted braces that do not offer appropriate support and also hinder proper biomechanics, resulting in poor performance, lots of discomfort and not much protection. Ideally, an athlete would go without a brace in training and practice – where risk can be more closely managed – to allow for proper movement mechanics and natural strengthening. A properly fitted, structurally sound brace could be re-introduced for competition to provide support and maximize safety. Unfortunately, I often see inadequate, loosely fitted braces provided to athletes in a “band-aid” fashion giving them the illusion of protection and security.

Orthotics

When I was training and competing as an athlete, I was constantly prescribed orthotics for everything from shin-splints to knee pain to hip pain and back pain. It was the miracle cure. “Hey, we figure that all of your different aches and pains all stem from your flat feet.” None of the sports medicine doctors ever asked me about training volume, training surfaces, training progressions or technical execution. The thing that always troubled me was that the doctors would always do their measurements for the orthotics when I was injured. They were not working from a baseline of a healthy individual, but rather measuring me up for orthotics when I was injured and heavily compensating for the aches and pains in my body. It made no sense to me. How could the doctor’s measurements be trusted? I was told that I would likely feel more soreness during the break-in period for the orthotics and shouldn’t train very hard during this period. Of course, because my training volume was lower, inevitably I would feel better. “Hey, it must be these new-fangled orthotic-thingies that are making me feel better!” Rest was the cure – the $400 orthotics were the expensive band-aid.

Core Shorts

Groin problems are a common issue for American football defensive backs who are required to change direction quickly, stop and go, turn their hips violently and sprint at a moment’s notice. This is also the case with athletes who play basketball, soccer and ice hockey. While I would commonly implore the coaches to give them more rest between their weekly games and also incorporate some soft-tissue therapy for adductors, abdominals and hip flexors, the team trainers would recommend the athletes go out and buy themselves some “core shorts.” For those of you not familiar with this product, it is the 21st century equivalent of wrapping your pelvis and privates in a corset. The core shorts are advertised as providing the support that your musculature could not provide in the groin and pelvic area, while allowing you to perform dynamically in your sport. When in reality, your range of motion is so compromised by the compression garment that it is impossible to reach any dynamic range of motion that would allow you to stretch your groin and be productive in competition. Instead of bandaging the pain, this band-aid simply does not allow you to reach a level of performance where pain will rear its ugly head. Sitting on the bench for one week and taking part in productive rehabilitation activities could achieve the same results, with a lot less risk and expense.

Ankle Taping

Taping the ankle is a rite of passage for most athletes, particularly if you are a football or basketball player. The intent is to protect the ankle from rolling over during cutting movements, stepping on another player’s foot or having someone fall into your planted leg. How much protection the tape job provides is up for debate. A friend of mine once told me that an ankle tape job is rendered ineffective after about 10-15 minutes of play, primarily due to perspiration loosening up the grip of the adhesive, but also because the tape stretches during repetitive forceful movement. In this regard, ankle taping is a short-term fix that only gives the illusion of protection for the rest of the game or training session.

The other side of the coin is that isolating a joint with tape can shift forces to other joints – forces that perhaps these joints were not meant to bear. A heavily taped ankle can easily shift sheer forces into the knee, leading to ligament strains and tears. As one of my wise friends once told me, “It’s a lot easier to rehab an ankle than it is a knee.” To compound the problem, many of the newer artificial field surfaces are much more resilient than regular grass and can grab the cleats of an athlete quite aggressively. In this type of scenario, taped joints can shift profound forces upward and can even result in strains in the groin and low back. One coach even remarked at the extremely high number of sports hernias he is observing in football, when he was lucky to see one or two per year in the past. The compensational stresses, combined with ever-increasing training volumes and inadequate recovery, is leading to an epidemic of injuries never before seen. We like to believe that advances in training, prevention and rehabilitation have enhanced our athletes, yet injuries are as prevalent as ever.

Over the Counter Pain Medications

What better way to mask the pain of an injury than to take a few pills. This is probably the most common band-aid solution used by athletes from the high school level on up to professional ranks. While it allows them to train and compete without the pain and irritation of the injury, it can lead to further problems. I will agree that appropriate application of anti-inflammatory medication can help to reduce the negative impacts of an inflammatory response and facilitate a more effective rehabilitation process. However, abuse of such medications in an effort to simply mask pain can lead to further damage to the injury in question, as well as compensatory problems throughout the body. There should also be concerns regarding the impact of long-term use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) on internal organs such as the heart and kidneys. One coaching mentor of mine was also convinced that use of anti-inflammatory medication significantly affected an athlete’s reaction time and cognitive function – which I have personally observed in football athletes that have heavily relied on such drugs in-season. As with many of the other band-aid solutions listed above, inappropriate use of pain-killers and anti-inflammatory medication can simply shift the risk to other areas.

Nutritional Supplements

The longer I work with athletes, the more I am finding that many of them view supplements as a band-aid solution for their poor nutritional habits. To them, these are not “supplements” but rather “replacements” for proper nutrition. In addition, they seem to believe that some supplements are the answer to their training success, spending lots of money on very expensive placebos. Of course, none of these athletes eat, sleep, regenerate, stretch or train properly. But, the “flavor of the month” supplement pitched in the latest muscle-mag or popular on-line e-zine will solve all of their performance problems. It reminds me of a presentation on TED.com in which Rory Sutherland presents the concept of simply using placebos with the population since they have been shown to work extraordinarily, they are very cheap to develop and they have no known side effects. And, even if they did have side effects, “They are imaginary and you can safely ignore them.”

——————-

One could argue that like placebos, band-aids have their place. They create the perception that the situation has improved, even if it really hasn’t. Band-aids capitalize on the power of the human mind to overcome distressing situations or diminish physical pain. When used sparingly and with the intent of discontinuing their use as soon as possible, they serve a useful purpose. Where athletes go overboard is when these band-aid solutions are replacing more appropriate and effective methods of improving their situation. However, when you have a screaming three-year old with a skinned knee in your lap, nothing seems to work better at calming her down than a good-old band-aid.

- Derek M. Hansen –

With the 2010 Winter Olympics taking place in Vancouver, Canada, we are exposed to a wide array of different sports that rely heavily on unique skill-sets that are not required for conventional summer sports. Events involving flips, twists, jumps and edge-control, all while wearing either skin-tight or baggy style-conscious outfits, dominate the landscape. Additionally, almost every sport in the winter Olympics is heavily dependent on the effective design and use of equipment – whether it is skates, skiis, sled runners, aerodynamic designs or application of wax. While running is the dominant activity in the summer Olympics, we only catch a glimpse of it in sports such as bobsleigh and skeleton where it is required for starts. So does running play even a minor role in the preparation of Winter Olympics athletes?

General Conditioning

It can safely be assumed that almost every athlete in the Winter Olympic Games has used running, in some form or another, as a means of general conditioning during the dry-land preparation. Whether or not running is absolutely required for their training is debatable. In fact, it seems that cycling is a staple of off-season winter games training, particularly for the longer skating and skiing events. Running tends to work more elastic responses in the lower legs and feet, while skating and cross-country skiing events rely on a longer push and greater ground contact time. However, running uphill for longer durations can simulate the longer extension phase required for skating or skiing.

From a purely exercise physiology point-of-view, running is a good way to build the cardiovascular system, with a fairly good transfer effect to other activities. If a winter endurance athlete wanted to mix up their dry-land training and is ‘tired’ of riding the bike, running workouts over varied terrain may be a good means of achieving a similar end. Running tends to be a higher impact activity than cycling or in-line skating, so caution has to be exercised when prescribing volumes of work and choosing a training surface.

Winter endurance athletes should consider using running in their off-season training. Often, the fight to be as specific as possible can lead to over-use injuries, plateauing and general mental monotony that can wear on the athlete both physically and psychologically. The switch to running can also prove advantageous by strengthening areas that are not necessarily targeted in the same manner by more specific activities.

Speed Related Events

In Winter Olympic events that require fast running, sprint training is a no brainer. These events include bobsleigh and skeleton, where a fast sprint of anywhere from 25 to 50 meters can provide a distinct advantage at the beginning of a sliding effort. Many of the top athletes in these sports started in sports such as Track and Field, rugby or American football, where sprinting speed is a valued quality. However, other winter sports may not directly benefit from dry-land sprint training to the extent of the sliding sports.

I had an opportunity this year to work with a good portion of the Canadian Long Track Speed Skating team in preparation for the 2010 Olympics. One of my main tasks was to work on dry-land sprinting with them to improve their starts. The initial phase of acceleration in speed skating tends to be very similar to actual running on dry-land. Dynamic hip extension is required for good acceleration off the start line, with a strong front-to-back arm swing to counter-balance the forces of their powerful legs. As they progress further into the acceleration phase, the athletes begin to lower their bodies and push more to the side. On average, the transition to the lateral push occurs at 25 to 30 meters into the race. Thus, our dry-land acceleration training including sprints over 10, 20 and 30 meters, gradually lengthening out their acceleration range.

We were careful not to sprint beyond the 30 meter distance. Not only are the limb mechanics much different to speed skating at this distance, but the athletes can also be exposed to greater risk of straining a hamstring. Thus, the decision not to run further than 30 meters was made on practical grounds, with the costs of running longer far outweighing the benefits.

Accordingly, dry-land sprinting can be used to benefit both short-track speed skaters and ice hockey players during the off-season. Less enlightened coaches may argue that running is not specific enough for ice skating. However, when you analyze the limb movements, posture and joint velocities, you have very specific qualities being developed by dry-land sprinting. These qualities transfer very readily to one ice acceleration. Additionally, dry-land sprinting during the off-season does not create the same wear-and-tear on the groin and lower abdominals that can accompany high-speed skating repetitions.

Other Events

I would love to be able to claim that running and sprinting could help earn Olympic medals in snowboarding, figure skating, ski jumping, moguls and curling. Unfortunately, sprint training may only help Shaun White escape the adoring fans and paparazzi. Most of these sports require countless of hours of specific skill training and practice, with many of these athletes beginning their sports at the age of four or five years of age. As mentioned previously, they may do some jogging in their warm-up or as a means of shedding some excess weight in the off-season. For the most part, they are hoping for poor weather and slippery conditions. Thankfully, the Summer Olympics are only two years away.

- Derek M. Hansen –

Once in a while, some of the major media outlets actually publish some interesting articles on the topic of exercise. Those of us that tire of reading headlines about the “Top 10 Exercises for Body Sculpting” or “How to Run Off that Spare Tire” are shocked when we see an article that can be of use to the general public. Time Magazine recently published an article by Adi Narayan titled “Is Running Bad for Your Knees? Maybe Not”.

In the Time article, Narayan initially presents the commonly held belief that excessive running is hard on your knees and can lead to osteoarthritis in later years. Procedures such as knee replacements or joint resurfacings seem more and more common amongst middle-aged adults and not just the elderly population. However, more recent research has shown that people who run regularly, even those that train vigorously, are at no greater risk for arthritis than those who do not run. In fact, study findings out of Australia suggested, “that people who exercised vigorously had thicker and healthier knee cartilage compared with their sedentary peers.” Narayan goes on to point out the fact that “arthritis is caused mainly by genes and risk factors like obesity (obese men and women are at least four times more likely to become arthritic than their thinner peers), rather than daily exercise or ‘wear and tear’ of joints.”

The article also includes a discussion of strategies to minimize running related injuries such as stress fractures. One suggestion was for runners to reduce their stride length (and, hence, air time) and increase stride frequency to reduce the braking forces created by landing out in front of their center of mass. Another suggestion was to simply minimize long periods of time away from running in an effort to keep the body in shape to absorb the ground forces associated with running. During the winter, when running outside is not an option for many people, the article suggests alternative means of maintaining activity such as treadmill running and indoor stair running. Thus, when the warmer weather does return, the body is not presented with the shock of hitting the pavement again.

I enjoyed the article for the simple fact that it presented some common sense information that all runners pretty much knew already but were afraid to boast about. Running can be one of the most basic means of getting the body in shape and staying healthy. We all know that running can be carried out in a manner that is unhealthy and destructive. However, many of the individuals who are running themselves into the ground are driven by behavioral problems (such as obsessive compulsive disorders) that make them exercise excessively. Running isn’t hurting people… people are hurting people.

I do have to include some general principles as part of my own article to give people something to think about when trying to avoid the pitfalls of running and associated knee problems. When performed properly, running is a great way to inexpensively improve and maintain personal fitness. However, common sense does not always prevail when people are in charge of their own health and well-being. This is where the unnecessary injuries become problematic, particularly for hips, knees, shins, ankles and feet. In general, many of the principles I have provided below apply to overall knee health for both athletes and the recreational fitness population.

1. Do not run through the pain.

I can’t even count how many times I’ve heard people say, “Well my knee problem started with a little pain on the outside of the knee and eventually led to it swelling up every time I run. Now I can’t even run.” Unless you are playing American football at the college or pro level, or competing in a combative sport such as boxing, mixed martial arts or amateur wrestling, you are not tough. Let’s face it. Having worked with all of these types of athletes and seeing what they go through week in and week out, I have come to the conclusion that I am also not tough. While their careers depend on the ability to fight through incredible pain and injury, the rest of us can take the time to listen to our bodies and take the necessary steps to rest and recover. So, do not try to tough it out. Running through pain can only lead to further problems in the form of inflammation, degeneration and compensation.

2. Keep your hips loose and limber.

A good majority of knee pain originates with tightness and poor mobility in the hips and glutes. Tight hips can create greater tension along the iliotibial tract leading to pain and irritation in and around the knee joint. High volumes of running can put greater impact stresses on the hip joint, leading to higher muscle tone and greater tension in the muscles around the hip. Simple passive static stretches for the glutes and piriformis can relieve a lot of the tightness in the hip joint and accordingly take stress off the knees. Additionally, massage of the gluteal muscles can help to reduce hip tension and knee pain.

3. Maintain supple quadriceps, calves and hamstrings.

All of the muscles around the knee joint must be kept supple and available for recruitment. If any of these muscles are knotted up and not firing properly, the knee will not be properly supported. As with the muscles of the hip, the muscles around the knee must be kept supple through static stretching and massage. When athletes report knee pain to me during training, a quick assessment typically reveals that they have a combination of quadriceps tightness and/or hamstring tightness. When I perform a simple light pass over these muscles with the palm of my hand or my thumb, the athletes often find it incredibly painful. It quickly raises their awareness of the causes behind the pain and a prescription of light static stretches and massage usually relieves the discomfort.

4. Choose softer surfaces for your running activities.

Heavy impacts on hard surfaces can not only create trauma within the knee joint, but also tighten up key muscles around the knee and hip. Where possible, avoid concrete and asphalt surfaces for longer runs. If you run several times per week, at least try to mix up your surfaces each day to give your body a break. Anything from sand to grass to wood chip trail will give your legs a break, while working on strengthening of the feet, ankles and knees.

5. Limit running downhill to a minimum.

Many recreational athletes love running on mountainside trails with varied terrain. While running uphill can be a good workout, running downhill can not only be hazardous, it can significantly multiply the impact forces on each stride. If you insist on running downhill, take it slow and easy. Additionally, maintain a higher stride frequency to reduce impact forces and keep a better grip on the terrain (as with anti-lock brakes). A cautious approach to downhill running is the best option, particularly on hard surfaces and steep grades.

6. If you are overweight, keep running distances and durations short and intermittent.

One of the most painful things to watch is how the trainers in “The Biggest Loser” have excessively obese individuals running on pavement as part of their training. The risk of damage to connective tissue and joint surfaces is much greater for for overweight individuals when running and performing high impact activities than for less heavy exercisers. While running is one of the more effective ways to burn calories, walking or working on a stationary bike is the best ways to introduce exercise to overweight individuals.

7. Choose running shoes that are appropriate for the surface on which you predominantly train.

Shoes that are too stiff or hard do not provide enough cushioning and flexibility. Shoes that are too soft can sometimes provide inadequate support. Unstable footwear can cause the muscles and tendons in the feet and lower legs to stiffen too much, resulting in harder impacts to the knees and hips. Obviously comfort is very important when purchasing a pair of running shoes. However, be aware of the types of shoes you are choosing (i.e. support vs. cushioning) and how your body is reacting to the shoes over their lifespan. Softer shoes may initially feel good, but over the long term may lead to more leg pain due to lack of support.

8. Don’t get caught up in the wonder cures of orthotics, knee braces and knee sleeves until the problem has been properly diagnosed.

People love to buy equipment to solve their ills. However, I would stress that you comprehensively examine all of your symptoms and running habits before you resort to orthotics or bracing devices. I see too many runners hobbling along with knee braces, but no one has taken the time to correct their poor running technique. Is this type of equipment bad? Absolutely not. In many cases I believe orthotics and braces are simply ill prescribed or overly prescribed. If you have taken the time to evaluate the situation and the appropriate sports medicine professionals have recommended that orthotics or braces are required, then go ahead and buy the gear. Hyper-mobility of the knee joint can be aided by a well-fitted brace. Knee sleeves can keep the joint warm, offsetting possible discomfort. And, orthotics can address foot-strike and alignment issues that may not be improved through physical therapy alone. Hopefully these types of equipment perform as advertised, reducing knee pain and improving your overall running experience.

9. Use anti-inflammatory medications sparingly and strategically.

Popping pills has always been a convenient remedy for the modern athlete. While I am personally not predisposed to using medications, I can say that strategic use of some anti-inflammatory medication can help to get you through some rough spots in your rehabilitation. Pain and inflammation has a sinister way of perpetuating the problem. Inflammation and fluid in the knee can impair proper muscle function in the vastus medialis portion of the quadriceps muscles. Pain can also lead to compensatory muscle firing patterns that perpetuate the problem. Appropriate use of certain medications – in coordination with many of the other strategies mentioned above – can help to get you over the hump and onto progressively better results in your rehabilitation.

10. Work on running technique and appropriate stride length.

As always, I have to include a recommendation on improving your running technique. As mentioned in the Time article by Adi Narayan, increasing stride frequency can reduce impact forces and the possibility of leg soreness and injury. Higher frequency striding will keep your foot-strike closer to a position directly under your center of mass, thereby reducing the braking forces of heel striking. It should direct forces to the mid-foot or forefoot, as opposed to on the heel which has less shock-absorption properties.

It is nice to read that running isn’t the primary cause of knee degeneration. I would hate to see running removed from our menu of safe and inexpensive activities for improving and maintaining health and fitness. For those of you who may be more predisposed to osteoarthritis, I would suggest that you follow all, if not several, of the recommendations provided above. As with automobiles, regular care and maintenance goes a long way to extending the life of its various parts and components.

- Derek M. Hansen -

Almost every time I open the most recent issue of the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, I will find at least a handful of articles on creatine supplementation, vibration training or stretching and warm-up. In this article, I will focus my attention on the whole issue of pre-event stretching and running performance. Stretching, like aspirin, vitamin C and moderate alcohol consumption, seems to make the jump between healthy solution and evil snake oil every other research study. So what are we to believe?

Traditionally, stretching has played a significant role in the warm-up process for athletes of all types. Common images that we have seen are the track athlete stretching on the hurdle, gymnasts being aggressively stretched by their overzealous coaches, and martial artists doing all sorts of preparatory stretches as part of their warm-up. If you weren’t stretching, you weren’t doing a complete warm-up. Stretching for the average group of athletes also tends to be a social time where individuals catch up on gossip, recent escapades and ambitious plans for the weekend. For others, it can be a meditative, reflective process. Needless to say, it is an integral part of the overall preparation for training and competition.

More recently, stretching has been identified as an activity that could adversely impact your performance, particularly for speed and power activities. Studies have suggested that pre-event static stretching reduces a muscle’s ability to rapidly exert force. From these studies, the message that is being sent to the general public is that pre-exercise static stretching is bad and may even contribute to injuries during exercise and competition.

The key common-sense issue (yes – here I go talking about common sense again) is a contextual one and relates to not simply the use of stretching, but more the timing and implementation of static stretching in the warm-up process. Is static stretching good or is it bad? Falling back on my most common response to exercise related questions… “it depends.” Given my inability to answer a question with a direct response, the following points may help to clear things up:

- Static stretching in itself does not comprise a warm-up. Static stretching, however, can be used to support a good warm-up for training or competition. Any athlete or coach with any common sense knows that a good warm-up involves movement and rehearsal. Movement gradually progresses from general to specific and less intense to more intense over a specified period of time. In most cases, 45 to 90 minutes may be required to physically and mentally prepare an athlete for an explosive performance in either training or competition. In speed and power activities, a warm-up is used to increase blood flow, potentiate muscles and rehearse technique. In longer endurance events, a warm-up opens up circulatory passageways and optimizes the heart for efficient use of the aerobic energy system. Static stretching can be performed in the earlier parts of the warm-up to loosen up tight areas, particularly where overuse issues can arise. It should be used strategically in modest amounts comprising a small proportion of overall warm-up time.

- Static stretching should rarely be used, if ever, immediately prior to high intensity performances. The word ‘immediately’ should be interpreted as within minutes of the performance. One recent study I reviewed had some subjects performing tests three minutes after static stretching, with others performing tests six minutes following stating stretching. Obviously force production was impaired within such a short window of time. The six-minute group had less impairment than the three-minute group, providing a demonstration of the ability of the body to shed the negative effects of static stretching over time.

- Static stretching can still be used as part of an effective warm-up routine if it is applied at the right time and in appropriate amounts. As mentioned earlier, if static stretching is required it can be used near the beginning of the preparatory process. Stretching can be considered a way to check on the status of key muscle groups. Muscle tone is technically considered to be a muscle’s resistance to stretch. It has also been defined as the amount of contraction in a resting muscle. The process of stretching (best classified as a process, not an activity) should be designed to identify tight areas, such as overly high muscle tone (hypertonic muscle), that may restrict movement in your training session. Stretching is an “awareness-building” process that will help you direct your warm-up appropriately, using a combination of static stretching, dynamic stretching and movement. The term “search and destroy” could loosely apply, but the process of stretching should be considered a subtle one.

- Progressively higher intensity activities following static stretching will help to offset the negative impacts of stretching and prepare you for your training session or competition. If the initial stages of the warm-up include general movement patterns and lower intensity activities (i.e. jogging), the latter portion of the warm-up will include more specific activities of a higher intensity. The majority of studies reporting that static stretching negatively impacted force production did not follow what I would consider a “good” warm-up protocol. Warm-up sessions that do not include some form of light stretching in the early stages to appropriately gauge muscle readiness and suppleness may run into trouble during the latter stages. In fact, a stretching session for some individuals may determine that they are too loose with muscle tone that is too low. In this case, the objective of the warm-up should be to activate the neuromuscular system in a manner that provides active or explosive musculo-tendon responses. These days people like to use the term “potentiation”, but I would say that any activation protocols are part of the comprehensive warm-up process. Call me old fashioned.

As with all other training elements and tools, the context in which they are applied is of utmost importance. Rarely, if ever, are individual training elements applied in isolation. Running sessions must be integrated and ordered appropriately with warm-up routines, strength training, recovery and regeneration techniques, as well as nutritional strategies. Stretching, including static, dynamic and ballistic techniques, can all be a part of an effective warm-up routine. However, as with a recipe for an elaborate culinary creation, the ordering and amounts of ingredients introduced must follow a specific, optimized schedule in order for the final product to be a success.

If and when static stretching is used for either warm-up or recovery purposes, it must be applied deliberately and carefully. Stretching muscle and tendon haphazardly will only lead to micro-trauma and, ultimately, greater tightness and discomfort in the long run. Stretching should be first and foremost an exploratory process to evaluate the status of skeletal muscle. Once an athlete, coach and/or therapist determines the status of muscle, different methods of stretching can be used to either elevate muscle tone (i.e. PNF stretching) or reduce muscle tone (i.e. light static stretching). One of the best books on stretching I have ever read is a book by the late John Jerome titled “Staying Supple: The Bountiful Pleasures of Stretching.” It is a book about the process and experience of stretching, detailing the impact on muscle tissue and functional anatomy. While other books provide lists of stretches, Jerome’s book increases our awareness of the purpose and sensation of stretching.

As with all areas of training and conditioning, rarely do black and white scenarios exist (i.e. stretching is evil). The world continues to be gray. As coaches and athletes, we must persist in our efforts to develop flexible guidelines that apply to a plethora of situations and give us the best chance for success.