Electronic Muscle Stimulation for Strength, Athletic Performance and Recovery
– Derek M. Hansen –
This article will be one of many on the topic of Electronic Muscle Stimulation (EMS) and related topics on electrotherapy and electrophysiology. It provides a general overview on the applications and benefits of electro-therapy devices. Future articles will delve further into the specific protocols for performance enhancement, injury management and recovery.
I’ve spent the better part of the last 12 years experimenting with EMS on myself and various speed athletes I’ve coached. My very first personal experience with EMS technology was back in 1986, when I severely sprained my ankle during a basketball game and the physiotherapist was trying to aid muscle re-education by stimulating my soleus muscles just above the ankle. Needless to say, it was an electrifying experience, with the muscle contracting to a point where it felt like an extraordinary cramp. And, the fact that you knew it was going to happen every 30 seconds for 6 seconds of contraction time was a little nerve racking. A small set of LED’s would either glow green for “ON” or red for “OFF” – much more intense than waiting for a traffic signal to turn green. I still vividly remember that first experience.
My own electronic muscle stimulation experimentation started with a small EMS unit that only allowed 1-10 seconds of contraction, with a fixed three second recovery. It also had a TENS (transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation) function that permitted pulsing and tapping sensations in the muscle. The unit was promoted with a 1981 article by Charlie Francis, and a photo of Bruce Lee with the EMS pads strapped to his shoulders, biceps and pectoral muscles. Seeing that both of these individuals were inspirations to me, it was an easy sell and I purchased the unit for my own home-lab experiments.
Benefits of EMS Technology
When I had that first EMS treatment back in 1986, it was clear to me that something profound was happening. As a kid, I had the periodic “finger in the light socket experience” where you would get zapped and classical conditioning finally kicks in. However, once you experience direct stimulation on a large muscle group, you will feel a magnitude of contraction that you normally could not experience through voluntary means. From the standpoint of lifting a weight, a larger load typically means greater recruitment, leading to greater adaptation (i.e. greater maximal strength). Accordingly, one should expect a greater contraction through EMS to result in greater maximal strength abilities as well. Although this benefit of EMS is not readily known by the sporting and fitness public, it is well supported by research and practice.
Strengthening
Electronic muscle stimulation can strategically target specific muscles for isolated strengthening. Careful placement of adhesive electrodes can determine not only which muscle or muscles are to be recruited, but also how well these muscles are recruited. EMS used on glutes, hamstrings and calves can help with stride extension and power for running, while work on the quadriceps can assist with eccentric strength and reduce ground contact times. EMS has also been used for strengthening the bottom of the feet.
While EMS targets specific muscles isometrically, it must be combined with regular sprinting and running to allow for the gains in raw strength to be converted to coordinated strength and power. Studies have also show that there is a lag in adaptive response – with full gains in strength not realized until four to six weeks after an EMS training block has been concluded. It is important to note that the best results are realized under conditions of significant contraction – which can be quite uncomfortable, bordering on excruciating. It may take several sessions for an individual to get to a point where they can tolerate the higher levels of stimulation required for significant strength adaptation.
Muscle Re-Education and Atrophy Reduction
In cases where an injury has been incurred and an athlete must accelerate strengthening or off-set muscle atrophy, EMS can play an important role. This is very common when a joint injury occurs, the limb cannot be used and muscles are not being worked normally. A foot or ankle injury is a perfect example of this application. The EMS unit can be used to work quads, hamstrings, glutes and calves when the athlete cannot properly walk or run for the initial stages of rehabilitation. For the athlete that sprains their ankle or knee in the latter stages of their training cycle, EMS can help to maintain muscle strength until you are ready to resume conventional training.
Pain Management
Through the use of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) and similar methods of electrotherapy, athletes can benefit from an analgesic effect to manage pain and discomfort. TENS selectively activates large diameter Type A nerve fibers without activating smaller diameter A and C (pain-related) nerve fibers or nerves that innervate muscle. It is often referred to as sensory-level stimulation – where stimulation occurs at or above the sensory threshold, but below the motor threshold. The level of current is determined by the perception of the patient, where current is increased until the patient feels a tingling sensation or “pins and needles” feeling. The mechanism of pain control is most likely either a block of pain transmission or activation of central inhibition of pain transmission by large-diameter nerve fiber stimulation.
Interferential current (IC) was developed by Dr. Hans Nemec in Vienna in the 1950s and became a popular method of electrotherapy in the 1970s. IC involves alternating medium frequency currents at approximately 4000 Hz in an effort to reduce skin resistance and discomfort. The theoretical mechanisms of pain control through IC is similar to that of conventional TENS therapy, including sensory-level stimulation and physiological block of nerve conduction. Others have also claimed that IC improves circulation and reduces swelling.
Circulation Enhancement and Massage
Use of low frequency electric currents have been used to induce a gentle pulsing of the muscle to physically increase circulation, thereby enhancing blood flow to the treatment area and remove waste products and fluid (venous and lymphatic systems). If you examine the treatment area, you would be able to see the muscle pulsing – unlike EMS for muscle strengthening, where you would see the muscle hold a contraction for anywhere from 3 to 10 seconds. For athletes who cannot access regular massage, EMS can be a useful means to achieve a flushing massage for specific areas of the body. It also can be very useful in cases where athletes have to travel regularly and are sitting for long periods of time in a car, on a bus or during a flight. This form of stimulation can also be used for warm-up routines (in cases where conventional warm-up cannot be implemented) and combined with harder contractions to create a potentiation program enhancing muscle readiness for high intensity work.
Reduction of Muscle Spasm
In 1997, I sustained a whiplash injury in a motor vehicle accident which has created problems for me ever since. Numerous times throughout the year I will experience a massive spasm in the muscles around the upper thoracic and cervical areas of my back. Historically, it has taken four to five days for the muscles to settle down, with normal range of motion in my neck returning in 5-6 days. In the last few years, I have been using my Compex muscle stim unit to help reduce recovery times from spasm. The Compex unit has a pre-programmed selection called “Cramp Prevention” that lasts 30-40 minutes in duration. This program helps to settle down the spasm in 1-3 days and restore range of motion in my neck in 2-3 days. The program consists of a series of low frequency pulsing cycles that work the muscles to bring down muscle tone. In essence, the program sequentially fatigues the spastic muscles – bringing down muscle tone – in a comfortable manner using a range of frequencies and pulse widths. When used alone or in combination with conventional massage, you can effect much quicker recoveries from cases of spasticity using strategically programmed electronic muscle stimulation.
Soft-Tissue Regeneration, Wound Recovery and Bone Healing
The use of direct current (DC) stimulation for the healing of tissue is based on the concept that it can enhance the naturally occurring DC potentials associated with natural repair, thereby stimulating the healing process. It has been postulated that living tissue possesses DC electro-potentials that regulate the healing process. When tissue damage occurs, the injury creates a current that triggers the body to biologically repair itself. Studies in both humans and animals have shown that electrical stimulation can actually enhance wound healing. In cases where wounds have shown to be chronic and/or have not healed within the expected time frame, it has been suggested that normal electro-biological healing processes have been arrested. The use of external electro-stimulation of such wounds theoretically produces a series of events which ‘jump-start’ the normal healing process.
Work by Robert Becker suggests that bioelectrical activity occurs throughout the body in a complex field that is closely related to the distribution of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Localized injuries, as well as disease, are thought to lead to a disturbance of this whole-body bioelectrical system, acting as a stimulus for the regeneration and repair process.
It has also been long reported that electrical stimulation can be used to enhance bone healing. When external forces are placed on bone, an electrical potential is generated. Negative electrical potentials have been recorded at fracture sites, which is in line with the “current of injury” theory proposed by Becker. Fukada and Yasuda suggested that the induced electrical potentials at the cathode (negative electrode) triggered the body’s piezoelectrical potentials, which enhance bone repair and growth. Although regarded with skepticism by many in the medical field, there is abundant evidence from clinical studies of the effectiveness of electrical stimulation for bone healing.
Conclusions and Implications
The exact mechanisms by which electrical stimulation enhances strength, circulation, muscle tone reduction, regeneration and recovery are still not clearly understood. It is obvious to me – through my personal experiences and discussions with peers – that there is significant value in working with EMS in coordination with other methods of training and recovery. And, I will continue to work with EMS in an effort to determine a coordinated approach to training and rehabilitating athletes. There is amazing “potential” for this technology that I look forward to discovering.
There are several choices in the marketplace for consumers who would like to purchase their own EMS device. In a future article on EMS, I will review a specific EMS device to give my personal opinion on its suitability for both athletes and coaches. I will also devote some time to looking at specific cases where EMS is appropriate, and the protocols required to maximize the effectiveness of this tool.
References
Dehail, P., C. Duclos and M. Barat. Electrical Stimulation and Muscle Strength. Annales de Readaptation et de Medecine Physique. 2008, 15: 441-451.
Kitchen, Sheila. Electrotherapy: Evidence-Based Practice. Churchill-Livingstone, 2002, London.
Nalty, Theresa. Electrotherapy: Clinical Procedures Manual. McGraw Hill, 2001, New York.
Maffiuletti NA, Zory R, Miotti D, Pellegrino MA, Jubeau M, Bottinelli R. Neuromuscular
Adaptations to Electrostimulation Resistance Training. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2006, 85: 167–175.
Robinson, A.J. and Lynn Snyder-Mackler. Clinical Electrophysiology. Williams & Wilkins, 1995, Baltimore.
Siff, Mel. Applications of Electrostimulation in Physical Conditioning: A Review. Journal of Applied Sports Science Research. 1990, Volume 4, No. 1, pp. 20-26.
Available Consumer EMS Units
Compex Sport Electronic Muscle Stimulator
Compex Sport is designed for the serious athletes in support of their normal training regimes. The Compex Sport has five levels of progression and four channels for complete body training sessions. The six programs include Resistance, Endurance, Strength, Explosive Strength, Potentiation and Active Recovery. Thus, the Compex Sport can serve as your personal coach, massage therapist and rehabilitation specialist.
This type of electrical impulse muscle stimulation equipment has been used successfully in physical medicine for many years. Compex produces professional, top quality, muscle contraction training equipment. The included CD-ROM based Training Planner details each stage of the work out and helps to create a truly individualized training program. Whether you are a track and field athlete, basketball player, football player, cyclist or recreational runner, Compex Sport fits the athlete and fits their sport!
Compex Fitness Electronic Muscle Stimulator
The Compex Fitness electronic muscle stimulator is designed for is for individuals interested in building muscles, toning and shaping to improve general physical fitness. The Compex Fitness Trainer includes two training programs and one special program. Electronic muscle stimulation is effective for muscle and fitness training and well as muscle rehabilitation.
The Endurance program helps you cope with long-duration aerobic activities and increases muscle resistance to fatigue by building slow-twitch muscle fibers. The Resistance program provides an all-around program for endurance and strength, building both slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibers. Finally, the Active Recovery program facilitates relaxation of muscles and reduces muscle soreness and stiffness following competition or demanding workouts.
This type of electrical impulse muscle stimulation equipment has been used successfully in physical medicine for many years. Compex produces professional, top quality, muscle contraction training equipment. The included CD-ROM based Training Planner details each stage of the work out and helps to create a truly individualized training program.
Compex Replacement Set of Electrode Wires and Replacement Electrodes
Also available are Compex brand accessories such as extra lead wires and replacement sticky pads, in both small and large sizes.
Globus Premium Sport Electronic Muscle Stimulator
The PREMIUM SPORT programs enhance Maximum Strength, Explosive Strength, Resistance and Reactivity of elite athletes. By stimulating the specific muscles needed for different sports, the Globus Premium Sport can supplement the training of every athlete. Sport programs include:
– Maximum Strength
– Resistance Strength
– Explosive Strength
– Reactivity
– Aerobic Resistance
– Active Recovery
– Preparation (similar to Potentiation)
– Basic Training
The PREMIUM SPORT has ten distinct libraries specifically conceived for the following sports: Football, Baseball/Softball, Basketball, Running, tennis, Cycling, Golf, Sprinting, Cross-Country skiing and Downhill skiing. The training libraries include Conditioning and Maintenance programs. The Conditioning programs help athletes reach peak condition. During competitive periods athletes will then switch to the Maintenance programs to maintain the peak condition without unnecessary fatigue.
Globus Premium Fitness Electronic Muscle Stimulator
The Globus Premium Fitness model includes fitness programs developed by coaches and personal trainers to improve your physical shape through electro-stimulation: balancing your strength, developing your resistance, preparing for exercise, recovering from exercise, as well as recoving from muscular fatigue.
PREMIUM FITNESS with its jogging, basic training, aerobic resistance, active recovery and preparation programs, help develop your physique, and charge you full of energy. Total programs include:
– Aerobic Resistance
– Active Recovery
– Preparation (similar to Potentiation)
– Basic Training
The Globus PREMIUM FITNESS will take care of your wellness and will help eliminate daily fatigue and stress.
Globus Replacement Set of Electrode Wires and Replacement Electrodes
Also available are Globus brand accessories such as extra lead wires and replacement sticky pads, in both small and large sizes.
Hamstring Rehabilitation and Running Mechanics – Part 2
– Derek M. Hansen –
(Continued from Hamstring Rehabilitation and Running Mechanics – Part 1)
By the end of Week 2, we were in very good shape. The runs were getting faster, and we were moving further out in distance for each workout. By the end of Week 2, we were running out to 30 meters at about 85-90% of top velocity with only very minor extension issues with the left leg. After a number of nights with the athlete wearing the light wrapping with Tiger Balm, along with our continued soft-tissue work before, during and after workouts, it seemed we had turned the corner on any hamstring stiffness or discomfort and his natural stride seemed to return. Now it was a matter of working into maximum velocity and getting a good number of repetitions under his belt so that we could be assured that the hamstring would be ready for the rigors of and duration of competition.
The video clip below shows the athlete at the end of Week 2, with some apprehension still visible in his stride. This was before we had him doing the nighttime wrapping of the hamstring.
There are a couple of questions that arise from this scenario. Is the athlete’s stride pattern affected because of weakness or an inability to contract properly? Or, is the stride pattern affected by the pain, irritation and discomfort, resulting in inhibition and muscular coordination issues? I would argue in favor of the latter argument. How do I know this? Well, the evidence is really quite striking. One day, the athlete is obviously struggling with his stride, and the very next day after trying the overnight wrapping process he is running smoothly. The explanation can only be that the muscles were loosened, the tightness dissipated, the pain and discomfort removed, and natural motion and coordination is restored. Is he stronger? Most certainly. But not because he underwent a magical adaptation process overnight. He is simply allowed to be as strong as he should be. The shackles have been removed.
By the third and fourth week of rehabilitation, our goals were to refine sprint mechanics and accumulate a foundation of sprint work to strengthen the hamstring and consolidate technique. The athlete had felt no stiffness or irritation in the hamstring, and his stride pattern looked smooth and unforced. Thus, we were able to assign runs of intensities between 90 and 100 percent of top velocity, over distances of 30 to 60 meters. We also maintained regular hands-on therapy throughout the workout as part of the warm-up routine and in between sets. The manual therapy not only helps to fend off fatigue and keep the muscles supple, but also serves as a psychological boost, letting the athlete know that you are staying on top of things.
Speed work with flying 20’s and speed change drills (i.e. fast-easy-fast over 60m) also help to strengthen the hamstring. The stress of the speed changes will not only test the hamstring, but also further enhance it’s abilities to coordinate high intensity flexion, extension and co-contraction. With all of these drills, I emphasize the work of the upper extremities in initiating the speed change. If the arms become lazy, extra stress is shifted to the legs resulting in a higher incidence of fatigue, and possible flaws in running mechanics. The arms help to initiate, steer and assign rhythm. If you are a person that always looks to find a silver lining whenever the injury cloud rears its ugly head, you can sometimes use this time to correct technical problems that may have typically been unnoticed. Experience has shown me that rehabilitation runs are predominantly performed at sub-maximal efforts and lend themselves to technical intervention and refinement.
So, what else is going on during the rehabilitation progression? In the weight room, we are staying away from any lower body work in the first week. The work on the track is providing enough of a controlled stimulus. We are, however, having the athletes continue their heavy bench press workouts to ensure that some very high intensity work is maintained by the athlete. The stress of the bench press translates into stress adaptations at a nervous system level and on a hormonal level that will benefit the athlete when they are able to run at higher speeds.
By the second week, we are doing some lighter squatting movements, but also working on power movements – such as power cleans and power snatches from the hang position – over shorter ranges of motion. By the end of the second week and entering the third week, normal heavy lifting workouts have been restored. We are not doing any isolated resistance training work in the hamstring region (i.e. hamstring curls, romanian dead lifts) as we are trying to avoid any exercises that may lead to stiffness or soreness that could impede our progress on the track. By the third week of rehabilitation, our full weight lifting programming is resumed. This return to normal training coincides nicely with our resumption of normal sprint workouts.
One final method that we used throughout the rehabilitation process was the application of Electronic Muscle Stimulation (EMS). In the initial stages of rehabilitation (Weeks 1 to 2), we used EMS for increasing circulation to and from the injury site. In the first few days of the rehabilitation process, we place the EMS pads away from the injury site (regions above or below the site) to pulse the muscles and enhance overall circulation to the site. By the end of the first week, we had placed pads on either end of the hamstring to lightly pulse the entire hamstring muscle. Although the main purpose was to enhance circulation, there are other side benefits of using EMS including general stimulation and strengthening, as well as pain management. We did not intend to rely on the EMS for the strengthening benefit, as our needs were being met by the on-track sprinting. Additionally, there are problems of coordination with hamstring strengthening. Although EMS will strengthen individual muscles, the coordination and sequencing issues must be developed through actual sprinting. Strength without coordination can be problematic.
In summary, coaches and rehabilitation specialists must do everything in their power to allow an athlete to resume normal sprint activities (even at sub-maximal speeds) as soon as possible in order to effect a successful hamstring recovery. This includes everything from massage, stretching around the injury, wrapping, electronic muscle stimulation and appropriate rest periods. Every training session must be an information gathering opportunity. Your next move will be based on what you see and what the athlete tells you. Shooting video is also useful so that you can compare one day to the next to identify improvements and changes in stride patterns. As in regular training, if improvements are not being effected, steps must be taken to ensure that the athlete continually gets better.
Hamstring Rehabilitation and Running Mechanics – Part 1
– Derek M. Hansen –
A few months back, I had the opportunity to do some hamstring rehab work on an athlete I had worked with in the past. He had been training another city for the past year and had torn his hamstring in a 30 meter sprint test. Four days later, he eventually made it back to my city and we had to undergo some pretty intensive hamstring rehabilitation. He had four weeks to be ready for his first competition (bobsled). This would have been more than enough time for us to work with him. Having worked with sprinters and speed athletes for some time, it was pretty familiar territory for me. I had no doubt that we would successfully rehab him in time for him to compete in top condition. It is important to note that the process we undertook is no different from the framework I outlined in a recent article on Rehab and Dating Success.
The first day he was back under my supervision, we started with evaluation and observation. Simply speaking with the athlete and asking him about the injury and how it feels (standing, walking, sitting, getting out of bed in the morning, etc.) can yield a lot of useful information. Given that we were five days out from the initial injury, inflammation was not a significant concern for us. It was more about determining the athlete’s level of mobility and comfort.
Working Around the Injury
After letting the athlete walk around and passively test the hamstring, we had him lie down on his stomach. I carefully probed around the hamstring to determine the extent of the injury. He had indicated that the main injury was located around the middle to upper portion of the left hamstring, specifically in the semintendinosus. I performed light massage on the hamstring using massage cream to ensure that the passes were superficial and not stretching the muscle and fascia too much. My main intent was to determine the status of muscle tone for the strained muscle (above and below the injury site), as well as the tone of surrounding muscles (biceps femoris, semimembranosus, gracilis, adductors, soleus, gastrocnemium). As you might expect, every muscle was hypertonic and bordering on spastic. I continued to work all of these muscles, including the gluteal muscles, to not only bring down muscle tone but also increase circulation around and toward the injury site to facilitate healing and increased suppleness.
It is important to note that I did not work into the injury site on this first session. There was a lot of work to be done elsewhere in the surrounding tissues. I did not feel that it was prudent to work into the site, given that the athlete was only five days out from the injury and endured a 12 hour drive the day before. Another consideration was that I did not have to get him ready in 10-14 days. I had a much longer time-line and exercising caution was the best possible option.
Implementing Acceleration Work and Drills
After loosening him up sufficiently, we had him perform some easy accelerations over 5 to 10 meters to see what he could do. I made it explicitly clear to him that he only needed to exert himself in a safe manner at 50-60% of his top acceleration rate at best. As you can see from the first video below, his running stride is significantly hampered by the injury and his foot placement on the left side is very guarded. This is normal under these circumstances. The intent of each run is to run as naturally at possible, at a conservative pace, without putting the hamstring in danger of re-injuring. I tell the athlete that he should feel a slight tug on the hamstring, as if it is being worked lightly, but not to the point that it becomes sore.
After performing a number of sets of 5 repetitions over 10 meters, the athlete indicated that he felt the hamstring getting noticeably tired. In this situation, you have a number of choices. You could have him take longer recoveries to ensure there was little to no fatigue in the muscle, or you could change the type of work. We decided to change the type of work. In the video below, you can see that we decided to do a running high knee drill (Running ‘A’). This drill allows him to perform dynamically without putting the hamstring in danger of re-injuring. The action is primarily vertical in nature, unlike actual sprinting which requires a greater horizontal extension component. He is permitted to work aggressively in a manner that bolsters good running mechanics, builds lower leg elasticity and rigidity,and gives him the feeling of performing a full workout, as this is an important psychological factor in rehabilitation.
Initially, working over 5 meters is sufficient to work the running motion, which should work out to 15 to 20 steps when performed correctly. Recoveries between repetitions, in this particular workout, may be between 1 to 2 minutes, over 4 to 5 reps total.
Week Two
By the beginning of the second week post-injury, we had made significant improvements. Continuing along with the iterative process of performing running drills and accelerations, along with constant manual therapy, we were able to effect big improvements from day to day. Warm-up would include light jogging, dynamic flexibility and PNF work around the hips, and light, flushing massage throughout the lower extremities. Accelerations have gone from 10 meters in the first week, to 20-25 meters in the second week. In between sets, we are continuing to perform massage on the hamstrings, calves and glutes to ensure they are available for recruitment, and that any kinetic chain disruptions are minimized.
I have found that hamstring rehabilitation is primarily about restoring proper intra- and inter-muscle coordination. When a hamstring is injured, the involved and surrounding muscles tend to seize up and minimize range of motion in a protective response. The massage repetitions we are performing help to reduce spasticity and enhance circulation in the region, while the acceleration reps and drills help to re-activate and re-educate the hamstrings and connected muscles (glutes, calves, hip flexors) to recruit in proper amounts and the proper sequence. I am a firm believer that if you free up the muscles to do their proper job, the appropriate sequence of movement will return. While many individuals will say that the prescription requires strengthening protocols, I would go much further to say that an appropriate coordination pattern must be restored. Obviously strengthening is part of the process, but it is a very specific form of strengthening (specificity of velocity, load and order of recruitment). This is why sprinting must be the primary source of work in a hamstring rehabilitation program. It is not a problem that can be adequately resolved in the weight room or physio clinic.
The acceleration repetition in the video clip below shows the athlete not only running faster, but striding through more naturally, with much less apprehension than the previous week. If you look very closely, you can see that the left leg is still not extending as it normally would. Prior to ground contact, you can see the stride shortening on the left side, whereas the right foot extends and lands slightly in front of the center of mass. Similarly, on the extension phase of the stride, the left leg is shortening the cycle ever so slightly and not extending as fully as the right leg. The result is a slight anomaly in the stride cycle that you can pick up through a visual sampling of the entire 20 meter run.
Feedback from the athlete revealed that he felt only a slight, subtle stiffness in an isolated area of the hamstring, but not any pain or discomfort. By this time in the rehabilitation process we were beginning to work deeper into the tissue with massage techniques to break up and mobilize any scarring in the area. It is important to remember that we were not constrained by a short timeline and we had enough time to gradually effect a positive result. I was determined to make sure that when the athlete was ready to push at 100%, there would be no doubt in my mind or his mind that the hamstring would be ready to handle the load over many repetitions. This meant that the sprint workouts were drawn out gradually in terms of adding both distance and intensity for the runs. The same approach applied to manual therapy on the hamstring. We did not force the issue with deep tissue massage until I was sure that the muscle tone had appropriately been reduced through a gradual means. In some sense, we had to “peel the layers of the onion” until the whole of the muscle had been stripped of spasticity and discomfort.
One measure that always seems to work well with muscles that have not fully “released” or joints that still feel tight is to have the athlete apply a heat rub on the injury in the evening and then lightly wrap it with a tensor bandage. The athlete then sleeps with the light wrapping. This basically enhances blood flow to and through the injury site. I always use Tiger Balm ointment for this process, as I’ve had very good personal success with it. It does, however, smell pretty bad and I recommend showering it off in the morning. This process is akin to the wrapping of the legs of thoroughbred horses after intense workouts and when a trainer suspects there may be a slight strain or sprain. In the case of horses, they may refer to wrapping of the legs as stable bandages or sweat wraps.
So the first 8-10 days of rehabilitation went very smoothly with no mistakes on my part. I have learned over the years to be extremely explicit in my descriptions of intensity and velocity to the athlete when preparing him for runs. I would say that I significantly overstate the need to be cautious in each individual run. I have had too many occasions when the athlete told me that he was feeling good and then proceeded to push it a little too hard on the very next repetition, resulting in a minor re-strain of the muscle. Placing significant restrictions on the athlete is critical, regardless of how good or normal they feel. The coach is always the best judge of the rate of progression, whether it is through visual assessment, tactile sensation of the muscle itself or even something as simple as the amount of time that has passed. The progression must always be smooth and gradual.
In Part 2 of this discussion of hamstring rehabilitation, I will discuss how we progressed the athlete to full speed runs. We will also cover the other types of work that were being done in the weight room and with explosive work, taking into consideration the status of the hamstring and the stage of rehabilitation.
Running Injuries and Kinetic Chain Disruptions
– Derek M. Hansen –
Working with track and field sprinters and athletes in speed-dependent sports such as football and soccer has made me very aware of the prevalence of hamstring strains and other debilitating soft-tissue injuries. The recovery period for these types of injuries can vary from weeks to months, depending on the severity of the problem. There is also a high probability that many of these injuries will re-occur and become chronic. Understanding how to better manage, rehabilitate and prevent such injuries requires a greater knowledge of the root causes, as well as associated treatment strategies.
Articulating the Problem
Our extremities have evolved in such a way to allow us to perform complex tasks, absorb impacts and generate significant amounts of force. The articulations or “joints” of our extremities assist in force production and absorption through use of angular momentum. The combination of various muscles, levers and joints can allow us to kick a ball, throw a punch, run fast or jump high.
In the case of sprinting, our muscles flex and extend the joints at extremely high velocities. A complex kinetic chain of movement is engaged allowing elite sprinters to attain relatively high speeds by their fifth stride of a 100m sprint (approximately 8.2 meters per second). This complex chain includes extensors of the hip, knee and ankle that are all involved in the ultimate force producing event – the sprint stride. At ground contact – the point of force production in an acceleration stride – the muscles of the hip, hamstring, quadriceps, calves and feet must be highly coordinated to ensure that the stride safely and efficiently produces the required force. Some muscles contract and relax in a coordinated sequence, seemingly in a wave-like pattern. Others are required to co-contract (agonist and antagonist) in order to ensure adequate joint stiffness for support. If at any point in the chain the leg muscles are not functioning properly and unable to contribute their share of the required force in the time required, the forces can be shifted to another segment in the chain. This compensational shift can lead to an overload and overuse of specific muscles, tendons and ligaments, enhancing the risk of injury.
When improper function occurs in one or several muscles in the lower extremities of an athlete running at high speeds, I refer to this as a “Kinetic Chain Disruption.” One must think of an extending sprint stride as a leather bullwhip (A bullwhip’s length, flexibility, and tapered design allows it to be thrown in such a way that, toward the end of the throw, part of the whip exceeds the speed of sound, thereby creating a small sonic boom, or loud crack.) If a particular segment of the whip was weakened or made more rigid (i.e. dried out) than the rest of the whip, it would not only adversely affect the velocity, but also the long-term integrity of the whip. Therefore, leather whips must be properly “dressed” and greased to keep them supple and strong for high velocity cracking.
This same principle applies to limbs that are required to operate at high velocities and forces. If any part of the kinetic chain is weakened or too rigid – through adversely high muscle tone – other areas in the chain are at risk for over-compensating and over-loading. In many sports, a muscle strain may not occur for some time after the initial kinetic chain disruption has developed. Because sports such as football and soccer involve a good deal of sub-maximal sprinting efforts, the problem can stay hidden until one extreme sprint effort is required. Athletes will often admit that they were “pushing” or “reaching” to catch another athlete or the ball right before they pulled a muscle.
Hamstrings
Hamstring strains are common in speed dependent sports that require a lot of speed changes, including stop-and-go activities that involve a great deal of hard re-accelerations, particularly in mid-stride. I’ve seen pulled hamstrings in everything from football, soccer, basketball, tennis, field hockey, lacrosse, rugby, baseball, bobsleigh and even, yes, ultimate frisbee. In a majority of the problems I’ve encountered, there were some commonalities that lead to the hamstring injury. Most of the injuries included one or a combination of the following factors:
Other Kinetic Chain Disruptions
While hamstrings strains are one of the most common injuries associated with Kinetic Chain Disruptions, there are many other afflictions that involve breaks in the chain of movement. Provided below are common injury areas and associated root causes.
Solutions – Rehabilitation and Prevention
As you can deduce from the examples listed above, a good number of Kinetic Chain Disruptions are caused by tight muscles (kinetic chain segments). These tight muscles often occur due to overuse, heavy impacts or direct trauma in the case of contact sports. Management of these issues must be done on a regular basis. Provided below are a list of active management techniques that can be employed if Kinetic Chain Disruptions are detected:
Recommendations
Comprehensive evaluations of the status of an athlete must be performed on an ongoing basis to ensure that all of the muscles required for locomotion are in good working order. Talking to the athlete may not always yield useful information about what ails them. Regular massage therapy can not only be useful for relaxing contractile tissues, but can also be used to gauge muscle tone throughout key kinetic chains. Once awareness is increased, proper measures can be implemented to rectify Kinetic Chain Disruptions and restore proper muscle firing patterns. The probability of significant soft-tissue injury can be prevented through regular maintenance and recognition of common disruptions. It can be likened to putting out fires before the house burns down.
First Step Quickness: Method or Myth?
– Derek M. Hansen –
We’ve all heard the claims: “Improve your first-step quickness so that you are lightning fast in your sport!” Is this possible? Is the first step the most important step? If you teach someone to move their feet fast, does that mean their body will follow? These are all important questions that must be answered to determine if a particular training method will yield the best results. In this article, we will explore the different methods employed for improvement of sport speed, as well as assess their relative benefits within a training program.
What are Speed, Agility and Quickness?
An appropriate definition of speed, agility and quickness must be provided before we can determine the best methods of achieving these qualities. I believe that most of the people operating the SAQ (speed, agility, quickness) programs do not know which qualities they are actually training in their athletes. Using Webster’s On-Line Dictionary, we arrive at working definitions of these three words:
Speed
Ve*loc”i*ty\, n.; pl. Velocities. 1. Quickness of motion; swiftness; speed; celerity; rapidity; as, the velocity of wind; the velocity of a planet or comet in its orbit or course; the velocity of a cannon ball; the velocity of light.
Agility
A*gil”i*ty\, n. [F. agili['e], L. agilitas, fr. agilis.] 1. The quality of being agile; the power of moving the limbs quickly and easily; nimbleness; activity; quickness of motion; as, strength and agility of body.
Quickness
Quick”ness\, n. 1. The condition or quality of being quick or living; life. [Obs.] 2. Activity; briskness; especially, rapidity of motion; speed; celerity; as, quickness of wit.
If you examine the above definitions, you will find significant similarities among them. All three definitions have the phrases “rapidity of motion” or “quickness of motion” in common. Using Webster’s definition, we find that these terms are actually redundant when used in combination and provide no distinguishing properties to help the athlete and/or consumer make an educated guess on what to expect in their training. Perhaps using the phrase “Speed, speed and more speed” is just not as marketable and doesn’t make a snappy acronym (three S’s make people think of snakes or air seeping out of a tire, perhaps).
What ultimately occurs is that the marketing gurus take these words and give them new meanings to adapt to the services they are providing which are touted as being comprehensive, multi-faceted and, dare I say, “functional.” “Speed” is put forward as only linear acceleration ability, while “Agility” is apparently the ability to move laterally, backwards, forwards and vertically with uncanny speed. Quickness, then, must mean the ability to move your limbs fast without going anywhere, which is what most of the SAQ drills resemble – lots of work without any useful application. Invariably, the phrase “First-Step Quickness” makes its way into the jargon, somehow implying that it’s the first step that only counts in movement.
We should be able to function in the training world with simply the term “Speed” to describe all of what was identified above. Speed, like the term velocity, can have attributes attached to it, including magnitude, direction and distance. Those in the know will use the term “speed” in this manner referring to short-speed, speed endurance, lateral speed or explosive speed, for example. Until we uniformly adopt this terminology when discussing speed, it will be very difficult to appropriately describe what type of training athletes are actually doing.
For example, I’ll talk to athletes and coaches who claim they are doing speed work. Their workout will consist of numerous repeat 100m runs with a walk back. In reality, no speed work is being done in these types of runs. The recoveries are too short (with the velocities too low) to even deem the work “speed endurance.” They are simply doing a form of special endurance work. However, the runs will still be fast enough to create a risky condition where a muscle pull can occur (i.e. hamstring), particularly during the latter stages of the workout when fatigue is present.
Additionally, you will often hear about fast-footwork being performed in drills that last well beyond 40 seconds in duration, with very short recoveries. In order for an optimized speed adaptation to take effect, the drill should not exceed eight to 15 seconds in duration, and include a significant recovery period for full recovery. Such drills must be monitored with a stopwatch to ensure quality is being maintained over every repetition.
The First Step: Quickness or Quackery
Now that you are thoroughly confused regarding what is speed work and what isn’t, it’s time to get into the individual components of speed. The first step has been analyzed over-and-over again to determine how to make this one stride more effective. Athletes have been told that if they don’t have a quick first step, they will not be competitive in their sport. In reality, the first-step only comprises a very small proportion of an overall performance. It is not the case that the sprinter who gets out of the blocks first does always wins the race. The first step may only cover one meter of distances, meaning that only 1/100th of the race has been completed. Lots of things can happen over 99 meters (or approximately 45 strides). Obviously, the shorter the distance required, the more important the performance of the first step. But quickness is only one part of the first step. There are other qualities that need to be in place to ensure that a good performance is secured. In fact, I would heavily argue that first-step placement is even more important than first-step quickness.
Athletes often think a big, explosive step is the most effective means of beginning locomotion. However, over-committing or over-exerting on a first step is as deadly to an athlete as over-committing on a punch for a boxer or a kick for a martial artist. In the case of a fighter, over-committing on a strike can affect your ability to adequately deliver power on subsequent strikes, as the body is out of position to re-cock the fist or foot. Additionally, over-swinging on a punch or kick can leave a fighter vulnerable to a deadly counter-strike from a well prepared opponent. In the case of a sprinter or any other athlete that is trying to move quickly over the ground, an over-exaggerated first-step can lead to the following problems:
- Forcing the athlete to push their body more upward than forward. This can happen one of two ways: First, if the body is not properly angled for delivery of horizontal force, the athlete’s angle of departure will be too high, leading to a tall posture on the second, third and subsequent steps. Second, if an athlete over-pushes on the first stride, the landing of this first step will typically land too far in front of the athlete’s center of mass, resulting in a pole-vaulting effect and bouncing the athlete upward into a less desirable acceleration posture. Acceleration will be stunted, as an upright posture cannot deliver the hip power required for prolonged acceleration.
- Negatively impacting power delivery and speed in subsequent strides. Running is cyclical and requires an appropriate and efficient distribution of power and stride frequency. Over-emphasis on one single stride, whether it is the first, third or eighth one, can disrupt the effectiveness of the speed run as a whole. Teaching athletes to treat a run as a single, inter-dependent effort of movements – rather than isolating individual strides – will always yield a better result.
- Vulnerability to Direction Changes. If direction change is required, such as for football, soccer and basketball players, an over-exaggerated first step will lead to a reduced ability to change direction, with an extended flight phase occurring before the athlete can get the first step to the ground. This is why we teach these athletes to keep their feet moving in contact with the ground, and not well extended beyond their centers of mass. Over-extension into one direction is an invitation for your opponent to “take you” in the opposite direction.
- Energy management. An overly-ambitious first stride can lead to fatigue in the latter stages of the effort. Athletes must be taught that a quick but controlled effort yields far better results without the danger of running out of gas prematurely.
In other cases, the first step can be almost too quick, in that it lands too far underneath the center of mass, thereby not providing enough vertical force to keep the athlete from falling toward the ground. Inevitably, the athlete will stumble forward awkwardly, with the second stride landing too far in front of the center of mass. As a result, the athlete will be driven upward prematurely, limiting his or her ability to accelerate effectively. This type of striding effort is more common with athletes who are taught to move their feet quickly in a choppy manner, as would be done with a “speed-ladder” device. Drills using a “speed-ladder’ can create artificial stride patterns that do not conform to an athlete’s body dimensions and power delivery capabilities. While beginner athletes will benefit from any kind of work – including tap-dancing through a speed-ladder – advanced athletes must be aware of the biomechanical and physiological demands of their sport.
Those who spend too much effort and investment in training the first step will find that other parts of their movement will be lacking. Even in boxing, the big knock-out punch is set up by a series of other punches and footwork, as well as defensive tactics. If starting speed is what you are looking for, concentrate on body position prior to moving to get the biggest bang for your buck. An analysis of the sprint start out of starting blocks will prove that good start technique is more a function of proper set-up (i.e. block pad placement, hip height, back position) and maximal strength abilities, not how much work is done perfecting the first step. Good coaches never over-emphasize one quality in training. If you come across someone who is expounding the virtues of improving first-step quickness, you will know that you have come face-to-face with a genuine snake-oil salesman.
Recommendations
What we can learn from a close inspection of “first-step quickness” claims is that we must evaluate movements as a whole and not over-emphasize the sum of individual parts. In some cases, isolating sub-components of a movement can help to gain technical mastery that can be extrapolated over the entire movement. However, if a movement is cyclical, there is a heavy interdependence amongst individual strides. Each stride sets up the next stride and a balance exists between all strides. Too much time and energy taken by one stride, negatively impacts the subsequent stride – and so on, and so forth. Control, relaxation and fluidity of motion must take priority above all else. And, total movement speed – your ultimate goal of training – must take precedence over first-step quickness.
What Counts? Albert Einstein and the Philosophy of Training
- Derek M. Hansen –
Albert Einstein once said, “Not everything that counts can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts.” As a track coach and strength and conditioning coach, I am always trying to determine which components of the training program actually count, and which components do not really contribute to the greater performance whole. On closer inspection, we can argue that there are direct inputs that create useful, tangible adaptations (i.e. speed, power, strength, endurance, etc.), while other peripheral components can create an environment for positive adaptation or a synergistic effect even though they do not directly contribute to improvements. But determining which training elements, components or exercises that give you the biggest bang for your buck is a difficult exercise in itself. Those who can identify the key elements will have greater, more consistent performances from their athletes, as well as less injuries and minimal instances of overtraining.
Controlling Your Variables
As a young coach, I was always intrigued by the observations of Bruce Lee. I also enjoyed watching his movies. Through descriptions of his approach to martial arts and his ultimate creation, Jeet Kune Do, I have been able to arrive at a philosophy of coaching that enables me to keep things simple and account for improvements as well as decrements in performance.
“In Jeet Kune Do, one does not accumulate but eliminate. It is not daily increase but daily decrease. The height of cultivation always runs to simplicity. In building a statue, a sculptor doesn’t keep adding clay to his subject. Actually, he keeps chiseling away at the inessentials until the truth of its creation is revealed without obstructions.” Bruce Lee
Coaching the 100m sprint is a good measure of your ability to achieve pure physiological and technical gains with athletes. There are no game strategies, trickery or teammates to rely upon to make up for physical shortcomings. When you step into the blocks in the 100m final at the Olympics, it’s the athlete and his or her competitors running in their individual lanes – putting their faith in their preparation. The same goes for other Track and Field events, as well as other sports such as weightlifting and swimming. Ironically, it is often these sports where performance enhancing substances make the biggest impact.
Specificity is key when planning and implementing a training program for a given sport or individual event. Thus, performing the actual event would be considered the most important training element. If you do not spend enough time performing your given sport in your specific position, role or event at the appropriate level of output, it is very likely that you will not significantly improve over time.
Using the 100m sprint example, you could run only 100m out of starting blocks for every training session. Specificity advocates would say that such workouts would yield positive results and adequately prepare you for your competitions. However, adaptation may be limited and short lived using this method since an athlete would only be challenged in the same manner for every workout. As we know from basic training theory, periodic variation in the stimulus is integral to providing ongoing adaptation and prolonged improvement in performance. Doing sprints of varying distances – some shorter, some longer and in various combinations and volumes – as well as adding other training elements such as weightlifting, explosive training, plyometrics and even aerobic training will enhance preparation for the 100m sprint. The difference between good coaching and average coaching is determining the proper amounts, progressions, combinations and sequences of all of the training elements – in coordination with good technical preparation – and applying them appropriately to an individual athlete.
Many coaches grab every bit of information and training technique and integrate it into their overall program, hoping to add value. There is nothing wrong with striving to learn more to improve yourself as a coach and bolster your training approach. However, adding more without taking something out of the equation can lead to problems. Adding more training elements haphazardly can lead to problems of:
Overtraining. Adding more elements and exercises can lead to an athlete that is over-stressed. If this trend continues over the long-term, overtraining syndrome can result. It may take the athlete weeks or months to recover from this affliction. Adding is not so much the solution as replacing. A coach that is adding something must also take something away to ensure that a balance in training load is achieved.
Interference. Some elements that are added may conflict or interfere with existing elements, particularly if inserted at the wrong time or day of the week. For example, excessive work in the area of endurance and lactic tolerance can dull explosive, alactic abilities. This is why you don’t see elite Olympic weightlifters running quarter-mile repeats with three minute recoveries.
Accounting. The more a coach adds, the more complex the entire training equation becomes. It becomes much more difficult to make adjustments and transition from one phase to the next. It is also harder to determine which elements are the critical elements (i.e. those that are providing the most bang for your buck). Thus, when a problem occurs, it becomes a much more difficult task to determine where to make changes.
Once again, I am not saying that adding new training methods should not be pursued. I am saying that one should be conscious of the big picture and the impact new elements can have on the adaptation abilities of an athlete.
“Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.” Albert Einstein
The “Confusing Menu” Syndrome
One of my favourite television programs of late is a reality show called Kitchen Nightmares in which world renowned chef, Gordon Ramsey (from Hell’s Kitchen fame) helps revitalize problem-ridden restaurants. One of the first things he does when evaluating the restaurant is review their menu. In every instance, these near-bankrupt establishments have too many items on their menus. Customers cannot figure out which items on the menu are actually good, while the chefs and cooks preparing the food cannot focus their talents on just a few good dishes. The result is low quality food, confused customers and a failing restaurant. The same can happen with a training program. Too many inputs, too many choices and no focus on what is going to provide the real payoff for the coach and athlete. You run the risk of bankrupting your athlete.
“I fear not the man who has practiced 10,000 kicks once, but I fear the man who has practiced one kick 10,000 times.” Bruce Lee
Classifying and Prioritizing Training Elements
Table 1 below provides a graphical representation of the classifications of contributing (and non-contributing) training elements. For illustrative purposes, I have identified potential training elements for an elite level 100m sprinter. The first column represents elements that will directly result in starting, acceleration and maximum velocity improvements for the elite level sprinter. For beginner sprinters of adolescent age, almost any type of training can result in an improvement. But this type of example does not provide us with the critical imformation for determining critical elements for effecting significant improvement at all levels of ability. For elites, over-use of non-contributing elements will result in a de-training response (i.e. they will get slower).
Additionally, the elements identified in column two of Table 1 are classified as indirect contributors, which can enhance an athlete’s ability to improve when training direct contributors. For example, improving aerobic ability, through the use of low-intensity intervals, can enhance recovery and regeneration abilities between sprint repetitions, sets and workouts. Use of electronic muscle stimulation can enhance muscle fibre recruitment velocities that can be applied in sprint training and plyometric sessions. The third column includes items that we cannot conclusively say provide assistance, but are often left in a program because we feel that the athlete can gain confidence by incorporating these elements in their training.
Finally, column four elements are activities that would not provide any appreciable improvement for an elite level 100m athlete. Scientific evidence does not support use of these elements and even anecdotal evidence is non-supportive. Some coaches may still incorporate these elements at a volume which does not negatively affect performance (i.e. used as filler activities to add variety) while others over-use them to the detriment of the athlete.
“Any intelligent fool can make things bigger, more complex, and more violent. It takes a touch of genius – and a lot of courage – to move in the opposite direction.” Albert Einstein
Recommendations
So how does one go about choosing the correct amount and blend of training elements to elicit the best training response in an athlete? There is no black and white answer to this question. What is clear is that heightened awareness on the part of the coach is paramount. A coach must keep track of all of the inputs in a given training program and be able to understand what an athlete is getting out of the prescribed elements. You do not need to attach percentages to individual training elements, but you should have a good idea as to the relative importance of each input. Key factors that will help a coach to make the right choices for their athletes include:
Experience
The more hands on experience a coach has under their belt, the more able they will be to discern what is working for their athletes and what is not working. Knowledge is of no use unless you apply it. And regardless of what you read in a book or on the internet, or pick up at a seminar, you really don’t know how to make it happen until you have logged the hours with athletes and seen the improvements first-hand. Having said that, there are coaches who continue to do the same routines over and over again, expecting a different result – which is essentially the definition of insanity.
Intuition
Some of the best coaches that I have met have combined adherence to scientific principles with incredible intuition – resulting in profound results on a consistent basis with their athletes. To some degree, enhanced intuition does come with experience. However, it appears that some coaches are simply better at reading their athletes and understanding how to elicit optimal adaptation through good planning and timely rest and recovery. Unfortunately, intuition may not be something a coach can learn – it may be only available to a select few coaches.
Quantitative Evaluation
Every training program should have a means of evaluating its effectiveness. For sprinters, the stopwatch is the indicator. In the weight room, the amount of weight lifted is the key indicator. In field events, such as high jump, long jump and shot put, the measuring tape is the indicator of progress. Other athletes from team sports can also use these indicators to identify progress for qualities such as power, strength, speed and endurance. If you can’t measure improvement, it will be very difficult to determine if your training program is working. Qualitative assessment can also be used. However, if something looks better but there is no quantitative improvement in performance, it will not fly in the world of competitive sports – unless you are a figure skater or rhythmic gymnast.
“The only real valuable thing is intuition.” Albert Einstein
In short, training for the sake of training is not the best use of an athlete’s time. I often come across athletes who don’t improve, and when asked why they continue with the grind of training with no tangible results, they respond with, “I just like working out. The training itself is enjoyable for me.” If you are one of these people, all the power to you. But if you are hoping to make significant improvements, keep track of your training inputs and make sure they are paying dividends for you. Once you figure out what counts and what doesn’t, training will not only be simpler, but also much more gratifying.
Rhythm and Running: Hitting Your Stride
- Derek M. Hansen -
I was having a discussion with a running client of mine recently, and she mentioned how she didn’t like to wear her i-Pod when running. She said that running for her was a time where she could be free and able to listen to her body. She felt the music interfered with her running experience. I thought about this for a while and agreed. My personal experience with running and listening to music has been similar, although there were times when my body was not feeling great and the music actually distracted me from the experience of forcing myself through the pain and discomfort. Hard, classic-rock seemed to work well for me, particularly Led Zeppelin or Jimi Hendrix.
The more I thought about it and other experiences with sprinting and athletic performances, the more I kept coming back to the importance of rhythm for running. The concept of an internal metronome, whether for fast running or slower-pace running, seems to be a common thread when examining good, fluid running performances. And, like musicians, better athletes seem to have a good grasp on keeping rhythm and not rushing the movement. Does this mean that musicians, particularly drummers, make better runners? No, not necessarily. I believe that rhythm for musical pursuits is somewhat different than rhythm in running. But I can see a connection with music playing from an i-Pod disturbing, or at least interfering with, the rhythm of a runner – particularly a runner that is very intuitive and aware of their body.
So what does this connection between rhythm and running mean for instructing someone how to run and enhancing their overall running performance? From my experience, rhythm, as it relates to running, should almost come from an autonomic part of the brain, much like the beating of our hearts. Runners are not counting in their head (i.e. one-Mississippi, two-Mississippi…) while executing a performance. The concept of “Feel” is critical and focusing efforts on other areas of the body seems to yield the best results. An example would be simply concentrating on breathing in a relaxed fashion and allowing the performance to flow from there.
We know that rhythm is important in executing a sprint, as the right combination of stride frequency and stride length must be employed for different phases of a sprint. Inappropriate rhythm at any given phase could result in tightness, over-striding, premature depletion of energy and many other performance limiters. Over longer distances, rhythm will determine efficiency and running economy. Over terrain that is varied, combining up-hills, down-hills and flats requires careful manipulation of rhythm. This is especially true for cycling, where the achievements of Lance Armstrong demonstrated that rhythm or, in cycling terminology, cadence can determine performance, particularly over long-distances and steep climbs.
With athletes who are working on developing fast acceleration abilities, I often encounter individuals who either rush their strides too much (overly high stride frequency) or athletes who push too hard on their individual strides resulting in long strides with a rhythm that is too slow. In both cases, muscle tension is too high, fluidity of motion is not present and the athletes are working well below their acceleration potential. John Jerome, an author who wrote many books on sports including “A Sweet Spot in Time,” presented a theory whereby all top athletes had greatly developed their “sweet-spot” for biomechanical movements in their sport – whether it was a golf-swing, baseball pitch or tennis shot. Finding that sweet spot for your running rhythm is a critical step in the skill-development process.
How do we determine what is an appropriate rhythm for an athlete or recreational runner? In all cases, optimal rhythm must be achieved in a “relaxed” state, where tension is managed in a way that the performance flows and does not lead to unwanted fatigue. Additionally, technical execution is critical, as good biomechanics will almost always lead to optimal rhythm and frequency. A good coach will be able to spot flaws in technique for cyclical activities by identifying disturbances in rhythm. One stride or series of strides may be interrupted in a manner that results in a loss in velocity or force application. A good friend of mine and one of the sharpest technical coaches I’ve ever met – Charlie Francis – was always critical of over-analyzing video because of the limitations of 30 frames per second yielded by most modern video cameras. He always felt that running technique would be “smoothed over” as critical frames would be missing. Watching someone with the naked eye always yielded more information from his perspective with the video camera serving only a supplementary purpose.
My personal experience has yielded similar results. When analyzing running performances, I’ve shifted towards moving way back from the athlete in an effort to take in the movement as a large sampling of strides as opposed to looking at one or two strides. I liken the approach to stepping back from one of those pictures that have a hidden pattern or picture within them. If you stand to close to them, you don’t see the pattern, just the individual pixels of color. However, if you move back and almost allow your vision to glaze over, the picture suddenly appears. This is how I look at running performances. The “real” picture appears only when you don’t look for it.
For runners who are analyzing their own rhythm, the process is one of trial-and-error. You must take the time and effort to free yourself from distraction, employ different levels of effort and cadence, and determine the effect of such changes. Sometimes the result will be visible with the stop-watch, your heart rate monitor or the video camera. While other times, your changes to rhythm will simply result in an improved “feel.” While the i-Pod may bring you hours of joy with your favorite tunes, it will not match the sheer excitement of finding that optimal rhythm when you run.
Running: Intuitive Activity or Complex Motor Pattern?
- Derek M. Hansen -
Running tends to be the most common training activity for individuals seeking to improve their fitness. It’s cheap and everyone knows how to run – left-right, left-right. For some, it’s right-left, right-left. Coaches of sport teams use running to condition their athletes whether it is running around a field or court, running back and forth in shuttles, or running up stairs or hills. And, young children run around for hours as a part of normal playtime.
All active, able-bodied human beings have engaged in running activities throughout their life to some degree. Yet, despite the popularity of this activity, very few individuals know how to run well. A very small percentage of individuals are considered “natural” runners, and are able to hold stride comfortably and effortlessly. But even these individuals need technical training to fully realize their athletic potential.
Thus, the answer to the question, “Is running an intuitive activity or is it a complex series of motor patterns?” is yes. It is both. This reality does have significant implications for how we instruct athletes and non-athletes on how to run properly. The teaching progression for runners, whether they are sprinters or long-distance athletes, must take into consideration the duality – natural and complex – of this activity. Coaches who approach running instruction from only one of these dimensions will likely be missing integral pieces of the running puzzle.
History
Distant ancestors of the human race walked upright over 4 million years ago. Australopithecines were “bipedal intermediaries between the apelike and the subsequent homo-like forms, and were unlikely to have been able to outrun most large predators,” as cited by Bernd Heinrich in his book Why We Run. It is obvious that running bipedal – even if it was slow running – has been occurring amongst the human race for a very, very long time. Thus, to some degree, running is hard-wired in our species.
I would argue, however, that good running is not hard wired. Running athletes from 100 years ago cannot compare in their performances versus athletes from the 21st century – in most part due to better training and better technical awareness. Athletes from the past still knew how to run and could cover the competition distances in Track and Field events relatively fast. But if you examine film footage of pre-1930’s sprinters, the technique being employed by the most athletes could be compared to what you would see at a local high school competition in the current era: athletes straining to reach the finish line, with possibly the first two or three finishers holding form for most of the race. Modern day elite performers have greater resources to provide them with better technical execution over the entire race. Additionally, equipment advances in the form of better footwear and competition surfaces have also helped to advance performances. The question is how do we advance beyond the evolutionary hard-wiring stage to the point of a “software” upgrade that enables individual runners to clean up their mechanics?
Feel: Moving Beyond Rote Instruction
rote – n. (rot)
- A memorizing process using routine or repetition, often without full attention or comprehension: learn by rote.
- Mechanical routine.
Part of the challenge of moving beyond our hard-wired condition and toward elite performances is achieving technical optimization through gaining a sense of trust and awareness with athletes. When teaching someone how to run properly, it is important to get the individual to feel comfortable when running. More importantly, it is critical to get an athlete to feel comfortable while performing the correct technique. This is done through constant repetition of the proper mechanics. The accumulation of proper technical work – either through the use of drills or the actual movement itself – will lead to a greater sense or feel of the proper mechanics, providing a frame of reference for the individual. Video review of their technique will also help to reinforce the proper running mechanics. It allows them to connect what they feel with what is actually happening when they run. The kinesthetic feel of proper running must be ingrained into their sub conscience so that good running is intuitive and reflexive, not cognitive.
This is much like a golf swing, where the novice, when learning how to drive a ball, will feel awkward regardless if their swing is mechanically correct or incorrect. They have no frame of reference for good or bad technique because they have little or no experience at all. If left to their own devices, the novice golfer would most likely continue with poor technique and become accustomed to the feel of bad mechanics. However, if a golf instructor intervened early on in the process and provided proper instruction on a consistent basis, the novice golfer would then become more comfortable with good technique and gain a better feel for a mechanically correct golf swing. This is why it is always harder to “teach an old dog new tricks.” Old habits are hard to break.
What I typically encounter when teaching athletes how to run is a condition of comfort with poor technique. Unfortunately, good running technique in the sports world is the exception rather than the rule. Most athletes have never received proper running instruction through their developmental years in their sport. Hence, poor mechanical habits are ingrained over the years and become comfortable for the athlete – even if that technique has resulted in sub-par performance or even injury. Thus, part of the evolution of teaching one of these athletes how to run mechanically correct is having them trust the discomfort of running properly. A common comment I receive from individuals when have them perform optimized technique is, “This feels strange!”
Awkwardness will prevail in the initial stages, particularly with drills. Your job as a coach is to ensure that drills that confuse and confound are kept to a minimum. Setting the athlete up for success is key in this process. For complex movements in sport, many times we find that slowing down the movement will make it easier to learn and assimilate. This is sometimes the case with Olympic weightlifting movements when we use a lighter bar to trace the proper sequence of movement and bar path for an athlete. With running, however, it is sometimes more prudent to keep things moving at a reasonable pace. I often see athletes agonize over the sequence of limb movements required for a Marching “A” movement (high-knee marching), putting the right hand forward with the right knee lifting, which is completely opposite of what is required. But when we speed the motion up to a running pace, limb movements sequence much more fluidly and appropriately. This is because the intuitive elements of running supersede the learned aspects. The key is to make all elements of running more intuitive and less cognitive.
This concept of making running an intuitive activity is critical. As a coach, you will have more success creating drills and running scenarios that move the athlete’s mind away from the task at hand. Many times I will focus on the action of the arms with athletes in order to correct postural flaws or lower extremity mechanics. A stronger upward arm motion will help to maintain proper posture, while emphasizing a downward pull with the arms can enhance knee drive. In both cases, you are shifting the emphasis to create an improvement somewhere else in the system.
Because running is a lower-brain function (i.e. non-cognitive), another way to improve efficiency is by enhancing flexibility and suppleness. By focusing on improving ease of movement you can facilitate the proper limb movements such as knee drive, heel recovery and hip extension without any additional expenditure of energy or effort. It is surprising how – with many aspects of biomechanics – the human body will perform the correct technique if you remove the obstacles to natural human movement with no cognitive intervention. In the example of running, improving hip mobility through both static and dynamic stretching, soft-tissue therapy and massage, as well as other muscle-tone reducing activities, can go a long way to increasing power output. Remember, almost every muscle has an opposing counterpart that can hinder movement (i.e. flexors versus extensors) and negatively impact ease of execution or even foster an environment for injury.
Prescriptions
There are many different ways to enhance your running mechanics. A comprehensive approach is best, one which addresses mechanics on several different levels. Key methods include:
- Outlining key technical goals for your athletes. A checklist that identifies key technical elements and cues can help to enhance athlete awareness and guide them to achieving technical excellence. Awareness of self is half the battle when teaching someone new techniques. If the athlete knows what they need to work on, they can focus their attention on key elements rather than going blindly into the task.
- Breaking down the technique into smaller sub-elements that can be isolated through drills or technique oriented runs. These drills must be performed at the highest possible quality to ensure that they transfer effectively. Drills can include activities that isolate hip extension, foot recovery, ground contact, arm carriage, posture or combinations of these qualities. A drill can also be comprised of a run over a specified distance with key technical goals that address sub-components of running technique.
- Immediate video review to identify current technical issues and confirm prescribed technical adjustments. The quicker the review, the better. Athletes will be able to effectively connect what they feel with what they see to enhance kinesthetic awareness. Modern day flash-memory based digital cameras, which are relatively inexpensive, have the ability to provide video replays of drills and repetitions, sometimes in slow-motion.
- Specific stretching and therapy protocols for addressing key obstacles to efficient and free movement, as well as enhancing the availability of muscle fiber for contraction. Passive corrections (i.e. enhancing mobility to improve technique) to mechanics are always more easily assimilated than active corrections (i.e. telling an athlete to change mechanics). Many times if a muscle is tight, you will not be able to will it to do what you need it to do. This is why many top athletes have physical therapists on hand at training sessions to help with improving mechanics and efficiency, as well as minimize exposure to injury.
- Directed strength training to address key weaknesses in the running kinetic chain. Exercises that address body rigidity and foot reactivity during ground contact, hip extension power and upper body strength for arm carriage can significantly enhance overall mechanics. As we know, running alone cannot be the only conditioning tool in your arsenal. Other methods can enhance overall strength, power, speed and endurance qualities that contribute to better running performance.
Concluding Remarks
Hard-wiring aside, it is obvious that running athletes can improve performance through a dedicated effort to improve technical execution. The goal is to “upgrade your software” without taxing your “processor.” In layman’s terms, this means to improve your execution of technique through methods that do not require the athlete to over-think the problem and unnecessarily stress the central nervous system with laborious repetitions of improper mechanics. Methods that can be subtly introduced create greater body awareness and effect change over a gradual progression will be retained more readily. Additionally, in times where tension and stress can be maximal such as during competitions, running technique will be more stable and will not degrade. The inevitable result will be better performance, better-looking running and a reduced incidence of injuries. One might say it is an intuitive solution to a complex problem.
Balance Training or Balanced Training? Which is More Stable?
News flash: “Athletes and average citizens are falling over spontaneously and collapsing at the waist on a daily basis! What do we do? There is a world-wide epidemic of poor balance and stability resulting in sprained ankles, buckling knees and, ultimately, severe head injuries!”
If this were the case, I could understand why a large majority of the fitness and sports training professionals are incorporating copious amounts of so-called balance training, unstable apparatus training and core stability work. But clearly, this purported stability and balance crisis is not occurring. So what really is going on here? My take on it is that the age-old problem of “a small bit of knowledge becoming a dangerous thing” is at play.
Let’s be honest. People are sheep. There are certainly many more followers than leaders in our society. We like to be told what to do in many instances. What is the latest fashion trend? What car should I buy? How should I invest my money? What is the easiest way to lose weight? I am, however, a follower of the age old process of doing things the ‘right way’, not the popular way. So let’s delve further into the discussion of this balancing act.
The Biomechanics of Balance and Stability
I recently taught a biomechanics course for coaches at the International Coaching School in Victoria, BC, Canada. The text for the course, Sport Mechanics for Coaches, was written by Professor Gerry Carr and offers a concise overview of the fundamentals of sport biomechanics. His discussion on balance and stability offers some important points:
“Stability specifically relates to how much resistance athletes “put up” against having their balance disturbed. The more stable an athlete, the more resistance the athlete puts up against stable forces. An athlete can be in a balanced position and be as stable as the Rock of Gibraltar. At the other extreme, an athlete can be balanced but be highly unstable. A giant sumo wrestling champion squatting low with both hands on the ground is obviously in a more stable position than a ballerina balancing on the tips of her toes. A child can produce enough force to push the ballerina off balance, but it’s unlikely that the same force will do anything but bring a smile to the sumo wrestler’s face.”
What I take from this description is that athletes require skills that allow them to orient their bodies and extremities in a manner which maximize their stability. The ballerina, on the other hand, is balancing and, at the same time, holding an unstable body position. Dr. Carr also goes on to discuss differences in linear and rotary stability, which relate more to body position and technique than it does balancing. Carr’s text provides us with what we need to do to enhance stability in sports. Athletes increase their stability when they:
- Lower their center of gravity.
- Increase their body mass.
- Extend their base in the direction of the oncoming force.
- Shift their line of gravity toward and oncoming force.
In case you missed it, Dr. Carr’s list did not include training on unstable surfaces. This may be a shock to many personal trainers and strength coaches, but it is the cold, hard truth. If I ever see an athlete teetering and balancing when performing a skill in any sport, with the exception of gymnastics (and I work with elite gymnasts and they don’t do any balancing on unstable surfaces), they are more than likely executing that skill improperly. Increasing balance and stability is all about good biomechanics and skill execution.
Sport and human movement should be fluid and effortless. Watching an individual perform balancing exercises on an unstable apparatus is like watching someone with hypothermia (with a severe case of the shakes) try to thread a needle. It is not fluid, efficient or pleasing to the eye. It is a massive over-stimulation of low-threshold, proprioceptive motor units engaging in a frenetic attempt to keep a person upright and off their butt. The adaptation is highly specific and not transferable to dynamic movements. The impact on Central Nervous System fatigue is significant, but without positive adaptations for sports. So, you’re working hard, your CNS is getting fried and you aren’t getting any faster, stronger or more athletic for your sport. Great tradeoff!
Movement in sports is inherently unbalanced and, to some degree, unstable. Fast, explosive movement requires that your center of mass be placed outside its normal resting place (i.e. inside your stomach). In sprinting, your center of mass is in front of you to assist in the forward driving motion for acceleration and maximum speed. Sprint athletes are unstable in the forward direction. You can be off balance, yet still in control. Throwing athletes such as discus throwers, hammer throwers, cricket bowlers and baseball pitchers all employ techniques that force them off balance to create greater forces and higher velocities. Training that requires athletes to engage in balancing activities works counter to dynamic, explosive human movement.
Research on Balance and Stability
Common sense tells me that training on unstable surfaces does not make sense for healthy athletes. For some reason, unstable surface training made the jump from the rehab setting to the athlete conditioning realm. If that trend continues, look out for the flying ice-bag throw and doing squats with an ultrasound machine strapped to your butt. Common sense aside lets look at what recent research has proven.
In a paper by J.M. Willardson, Core Stability Training: Application to Sports Conditioning Programs, he appropriately comments that, “Despite the popularity of core stability training, relatively little scientific research has been conducted to demonstrate the benefits for healthy athletes.” He quotes findings by authors of studies such as Vera-Garcia and Behm that indicate that the abdominal region of the body experiences greater muscular ‘activity’ during exercises on unstable apparatus such as a Swiss ball as compared to a stable weight bench. My response to such findings would be, “Is this type of muscular activity producing a useful adaptation for sports and, for that matter, normal human activities such as walking, standing, jogging and picking up something off the floor?” I know that when I sneeze or cough my abdominal area experiences significant muscular ‘activity’. A friend of mine even broke a rib during a coughing fit (not recommended). Following from the pro-Swiss ball perspective, should we then encourage athletes to start smoking and inject them with the cold virus? We could probably get financial support from tobacco companies and the producers of Nyquil with this training approach.
Behm and associates also found out that force output was less on unstable apparatus versus stable benches. Wow – we had to perform a scientific study to determine that outcome! Just go check out your local gym where the fitness crowd is performing dumbbell presses on Swiss balls with the 10 and 15 pound dumbbells. That’s okay – you won’t find me on that end of the dumbbell rack anyways. Willardson again appropriately states that while core stability is required for successful execution of sports skills, “very few sports skills require the degree of instability inherent with Swiss ball exercises.” He goes on to quote Stuart McGill who indicates that, “Any exercise that channels motor patterns to ensure a stable spine, through repetition, constitutes a core stability exercise.” So, from my count, this would include standing, walking, running, jumping, weight lifting, throwing, playing sports and so on and so forth.
Behm and associates also looked at wobble boards and ice hockey performance. For some reason, people associate balancing on a fulcrum board with slipping and sliding on ice. Good thing personal trainers aren’t helping design automobiles and snow tires. Behm and associates found out that, “for the most skilled players, skating speed was not significantly related to wobble board balance (R= -0.28). Once again, we needed a scientific study to figure that one out! Apparently, common sense is not so common. Willardson goes on to state something that every good coach and trainer should figure out before they provide a training program for hockey players – “The optimal approach to improve balance for healthy athletes might be through practice of relevant skills and movements on the same surface on which those same skills and movements are performed during competition.” Hallelujah!!!! I think we are on to something here. You won’t get a standing ovation at a personal training conference or even an NSCA conference, but hey, you’ll be doing the industry and your clients a service.
Here’s a good one. Stanton and others, as identified in Willardson’s article, evaluated Swiss ball training for improvements in running economy and VO2 max. They found out that Swiss ball training yielded no significant differences in these running performance indicators. Once again… no kidding! The funny part is that they concluded that the best type of core strengthening for running would be, “exercises performed in a unilateral, single-leg support, standing position, with the arms held in a position similar to running.” By jove, those exercises sound like – you guessed it – running. You mean to tell me that actually doing the running will condition my ‘core’ to the demands of running? Get outta here!
Stanton and friends also concluded that, “Improvements in core stability were skill specific.” This is something I have always told my athletes. Performing repetitions on a Swiss ball, Bosu trainer or balance board will improve your stability on these devices. But, there is little to no transference to high speed, forceful and dynamic movements on solid ground, or even ice for that matter. It is similar to using the juggling of balls as a training activity for improving hand-eye-coordination. It will make you better at juggling balls, but it won’t prepare you for catching a 100 mph fastball.
For those who are willing to listen to reason, the best way to address the core strengthening requirements for running would be to:
- Run (yes, it’s that simple).
- Perform the marching, skipping and high knee running drills we should have all learned as young athletes.
- Low amplitude jumps and plyometrics which load the core vertically, similar to running.
Of course, as supplementary exercises, you can continue to perform your med-ball passes and abdominal crunches. Do you need to be ‘unstable’ while doing these types of exercises? There will always be a small degree of balancing going on while performing these types of exercises, but not to the degree that your well-being is at risk (i.e. falling off a Bosu or Swiss ball). A good solid surface should serve you well.
In the paper by Behm and Anderson, The Role of Instability with Resistance Training, they conclude that, “…both stable and unstable exercises should be included to ensure and emphasis on both higher force (stable) and balance (unstable) stressors to the neuromuscular system.” My problem with this statement is that the term “unstable” needs to be appropriately defined and a magnitude attached. I would take the term ‘unstable’ to mean performing a standing, single-arm shoulder press (on solid ground) over a seated barbell bilateral shoulder press. However, others might conclude that “unstable” means performing a single-arm dumbbell snatch on a Bosu ball while in a canoe surrounded by alligators. You might go as far to deem the person performing this exercise as both physically and mentally unstable.
Cressey, West, Tiberio et al. also found similar results with athletes performing exercises on stable surfaces outperforming those who trained on unstable surfaces (inflatable disc) in activities such as jumping, sprinting and agility. As with other studies, they determined that force application was not nearly as high on unstable surfaces as compared with stable surfaces. Translation: When your body senses you could possibly fall over, it doesn’t allow you to put heavy weights over your head. Thank goodness your body has more sense than most trainers. It’s really all about self preservation.
So the research is in and it shows that balancing on different unstable devices yields no significant improvement in athletic ability. I’ve gone through at least a dozen studies and the results are pretty much the same. I hope more researchers don’t continue to waste their time studying this fact of training. But I suspect that proponents of balance training will continue to push their agenda and try to manufacture studies that prove their assertions. It’s as though Donald Rumsfeld is pushing the unstable surface training agenda: “They do have weapons of mass destruction, even though we cannot find any proof whatsoever, except these 20 year old barrels that might have once been used for chemical weapons or fertilizer or something like that. But let’s invade anyways!” Sounds logical to me?!?!
Practical Considerations
If stability exercises on unstable surfaces only provide specific adaptations that do not transfer to sporting movements, why are we still seeing these concepts pushed by sports and fitness training gurus? One answer is that if “all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail.” Many trainers are only equipped to address stability issues in their array of training options. It is amazing to find out that many trainers do not know how to perform or properly instruct many basic weightlifting movements including squatting, pressing and pulling. They know very little about proper biomechanics for running, jumping, throwing and lifting. Additionally, they do not properly understand how to train different energy systems. So, what options are left for these types of trainers? “Get on that fancy ball and start balancing for me! When you get better at balancing on that thing, I’m going to start throwing balls at you! Then, I’m going to strap these elastic bands onto you.” And the madness continues.
Anyone that has done any conventional stability work knows that one of the side effects is that it really tightens you up. The core abdominal work on unstable surfaces tightens up the abs, hip flexors and lower back muscles. Balancing vertical on Swiss balls, balance boards or Bosu trainers tighten up the groin and the IT bands to a point where chronic groin pulls, abdominal strains and knee pain are not uncommon. The National Hockey League is a prime example of this phenomenon. Groin pulls and abdominal strains are commonplace even though many teams do nothing but “strengthen the core.” You don’t have to be a brain surgeon to connect the dots and identify the causes of these strains. If you are an athlete that must perform required workouts with all of these crazy stability exercises, make sure that you are supplementing this work with lots of light, static stretching of the hip flexors, glutes, hamstrings, groin and piriformis to bring down the muscle tone in these areas.
Where is this Going? Future Directions
One would hope that this obsession with balancing and stabilizing will be a passing fad, like the hula-hoop, the yo-yo and disco dancing. Unfortunately, as my wife reminded me, all of these fads make comebacks at some point. Even the Rubik’s Cube is making a comeback this Christmas season. So, even if our generation comes to its senses in time to prevent more sprained ankles, abdominal tears and head injuries, inevitably our great, grand-children will be bombarded with new stability exercises to help deal with zero gravity on the International Space Station version of the Olympic Games.
So what can we do to improve the situation? The answer is – you guessed it – education. The general public has been duped into thinking that balance is important. Let me rephrase that… They have been duped into thinking “balancing” is important. Of course balance and stability is important. However, the methods currently being used to enhance balance and stability are way off base. Every sporting coach and strength coach must go back to the fundamental biomechanical requirements for different movements and sports. Specificity of training is important. This includes specificity of movement, specificity of load, specificity of velocity, specificity of contraction type, specificity of joint angle, etcetera, and etcetera. However, trying to simulate sporting movements by creating artificial environments and over-thinking the equation in an effort to sell products is irresponsible. Hopefully the masses will be enlightened sooner than later.
References:
Anderson, K.G. and D.G. Behm. Maintenance of EMG Activity and Loss of Force Output with Instability. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2004, 18(3), 637-640.
Behm, D.G. and K.G. Anderson. The Role of Instability with Resistance Training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2006, 20(3), 716-722.
Behm, D.G, K.G. Anderson and R.S. Curnew. Muscle Force and Activation Under Stable and Unstable Conditions. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2002, 16(3), 416-422.
Carr, Gerry. Sport Mechanics for Coaches. Human Kinetics, Champaign, Illinois: 2004.
Cressey, E.M., C.A. West, D.P. Tiberio, W.J. Kraemer and C.M. Maresh. The Effects of Ten Weeks of Lower-Body Unstable Surface Training on Markers of Athletic Performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2007, 21(2), 561-567.
Hamlyn, N., D.G. Behm, and W.B. Young. Trunk Muscle Activation During Dynamic Weight-Training Exercises and Isometric Instability Activities. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2007, 21(4), 1108-1112.
McBride, J.M., P. Comrie and R. Deane. Isometric Squat Force Output and Muscle Activity in Stable and Unstable Conditions. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2006, 20(4), 915-918.
Stanton, R., P.R. Reaburn and B. Humphries. The Effect of Short-Term Swiss Ball Training on Core Stability and Running Econonmy. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2004, 18(3), 561-567.
Willardson, J.M. “Core Stability Training: Applications to Sport Conditioning Programs.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2007, 21(3) 979-985.
Implementing Effective Team Warm-Ups
Warming-up has always been and continues to be an important component of training and competing in all sports. There are obvious reasons why athletes need to warm-up prior to their sport of choice, including performance enhancement, injury prevention and mental preparation. Warm-up can also be an opportunity for development of skills and movement abilities, assuming the coach is closely monitoring the quality of those skills.
Unfortunately, developing an effective warm-up program is not a “one-size fits all” proposition. Different athletes from different sports, abilities, ages and environments need a warm-up that best suits them. Thus, the first order of business is to determine what type of warm-up progression would be most appropriate given the conditions you have to work with.
Preparatory Work
When developing a warm-up plan, it is important to consider the following issues:
1. Identify Your Time Constraints
How much time can you allocate to your warm-up? If you have a field or court booked for 90 minutes and you want to make sure you can fit in a good warm-up, part of the 90 minutes must be used for warm-up. If you do not want to have the warm-up infringe on your valuable practice time, it can be possible to use an end-zone, sideline or smaller room for a preparatory warm-up.
At minimum, 15 to 20 minutes should be allocated for a proper group/team warm-up. Remember also that the warm-up should never be seen as isolated from the actual training session. A well implemented warm-up should seamlessly progress from warm-up to the full intensity of a training session or game. Elite athletes in high intensity sports such as the 100m sprint in track and field may take as long as 90 to 120 minutes for an effective warm-up. This warm-up is drawn out in a manner that slowly brings the athlete to a state of readiness, while not creating unwanted stress and fatigue.
The shorter amount of time you have for warm-up, the more continuous in nature it should be. If you only have 10 minutes to warm-up, you should be moving the whole time and progressing from low intensity to high intensity. If you have significantly more time for warm-up, you can intersperse continuous movement with dynamic stretching sessions. Not only does it help to prepare the athlete for intermittent exercise, it also adds variety to the program.
2. Determine Your Group’s/Team’s Training Capacity
The amount of work you prescribe for warm-up will depend on the fitness levels of your athletes. If your warm-up program does not reflect the capabilities of your athletes, you will likely burn all of their energy in the warm-up phase. Additionally, you run the risk of injuring athletes with a warm-up that they cannot handle.
Remember, an athlete must be in good overall condition to complete an effective warm-up. Athletes must put in enough work to raise their internal body temperature adequately (i.e. they should be sweating), rehearse all the necessary skills and movements required in their sport, and put them in a good frame of mind for competing.
3. Evaluate Your Training Environment
Where can I conduct my warm-up? In some cases, you may have a choice, and the ability to choose the best possible warm-up environment. In other cases, you may be stuck with what you deem an ‘unacceptable’ warm-up facility. Space limitations can be frustrating, but can be worked around. There are different ways to implement a continuous warm-up with limited space.
a. Shuttle Warm-Up Method
A shuttle warm-up involves doing various drills, movements and runs in a back-and-forth fashion. The distance of the shuttle length can vary between 10m and 40m, but it may depend on how much space you have and the sport you play. For example, a volleyball court is much smaller than a soccer field. Thus, a shuttle warm-up for volleyball can be performed from side-line to side-line (approx 10m), while a shuttle warm-up for a soccer player can be over 20-30m.
Regardless of your sport, you may have space limitations that require that you only perform short shuttles for your warm-up. The drills that you can use in this configuration are discussed later in this paper. Figure 1 below provides an illustration of the shuttle configuration for various distances.
Figure 1: Shuttle configuration warm-up with short and longer distances.
b. Box or Rectangle Warm-Up Method
The box or rectangle warm-up method involves doing various drills, movements and runs around a specified course, with drills and intensities changing for each ‘side’ of this configuration. The square or rectangle conforms to many spaces that will be available to you including a portion of a basketball or volleyball court, the end-zone of a football or soccer field, or a small space away from your main practice area. The dimensions of the configuration will depend on the space you have available, as well as the type of sport for which you are preparing (i.e. squash may have 10m sides, while field hockey may have 25m sides). Figure 2 provides an illustration of this type of configuration.
Figure 2: Square configuration warm-up.
4. Guidelines for Warm-Up Activities
Now that you have determined your opportunities and constraints for implementing a warm-up, you can identify the specific details of your warm-up. Provided below are some useful guidelines for setting up your group/team warm-up:
a. Start with General Movement Patterns to Raise Body Temperature
This is as simple as going for a jog. Although many people think this is “low tech” or “old-school” it is one of the easiest methods to achieve this end. Any low intensity activity that creates a circulatory response (i.e. increase in heart rate) will help to physically heat the body. Heating the body primes nerve passages, opens arterial and venous passageways, and enhances the elastic properties of muscle and connective tissue. Other options include skipping, walking or doing repetitive motions on the spot (i.e. jumping jacks).
b. Incorporate Dynamic Flexibility Work
Intersperse dynamic flexibility work throughout your warm-up. As your body warms up more and more, you will be able to achieve greater ranges of motion. The dynamic movements you perform should include activities that work through the required ranges of motion for your sport. Dynamic flexibility work implies that you are actively moving through a range of motion in a safe and progressive fashion. Actions such as arms swings, torso rotations and leg swings are all examples of dynamic flexibility movements. When you begin these movements, you should start at a lower intensity/velocity and slowly progress to a higher intensity/velocity.
c. Progress Toward Higher Intensity Work
As with the dynamic flexibility work, your entire warm-up progression should be based on the concept of working from low-intensity to high-intensity output. Starting at too high an intensity will shock the system and potentially create unwanted fatigue or injury. However, you do want to slowly build up to full-intensity to prepare you for the demands of your competition environment. The saying, “Practice how you play,” also tells us that our warm-up for training should be no different than our warm-up for competition.
d. Incorporate More Dynamic Flexibility Work
As you move from lower intensity work to higher intensity work, your dynamic flexibility work can increase in intensity as well. When your body temperature is higher and your muscles are firing more efficiently more specific flexibility work can be performed.
e. Finish with Game Specific Movement Patterns
If the beginning of the warm-up started with general movement patterns performed at a lower intensity (i.e. jogging in a straight line), the latter part of your warm-up will include more sport specific movements. For example, at the end of their warm-up, volleyball players may include more jumping movements similar to blocking or hitting. Soccer players will incorporate more lateral movement and backpedaling, finishing in a shot or a pass play. Basketball players will finish their warm-up with more one-on-one type movement patterns such as jab steps, lateral slides, jumping and pivoting.
f. Incorporate Limited Static Stretching Where Required
In some cases, static stretching may be required to assist with joint mobility or simply a tight muscle group. This can be implemented on an individual basis, and can be done with simply isolated static stretches or more advanced partner stretching such as PNF (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation) stretches. Too much static stretching, however, can dull the reflexes and result in less force production.
5. General Structure of the Warm-Up Plan
6. Sample Warm-Up Exercises
Provided below are just a few of the types of drills and exercises that can be performed in a group/team warm-up (listed in increasing intensity and complexity):
• Jogging forwards
• Jogging backwards
• Skipping forwards
• Skipping backwards
• Running high heels (butt kicks)
• Running high knees
• Skipping forwards with forward arm rotations
• Skipping forwards with backward arm rotations
• Skipping backwards with forward arm rotations
• Skipping backwards with backward arm rotations
• Lateral shuffles – tall stance
• Lateral shuffles – low stance
• Lateral shuffles alternating directions (3 shuffles one way, pivot, three shuffles facing other way)
• Carioca steps (lateral running crossing over front and back)
• Carioca steps with periodic rotations to change direction
• Carioca steps with large bounding steps
• Carioca steps with small, quick steps
• Rolling lunges
• Backwards rolling lunges
• Power skips
• Single leg hops
• Alternate leg bounds
• Power skips
• Two leg hops
• Squat jumps
• Tuck jumps
• Sprints from falling start
• Sprints from lateral start
• Sprints from push-up start
• Multiple push-ups into a start
• Running high-knees into a sprint
• Multiple side-shuffles turning into a sprint
• Backpedal into a sprint
• Multiple hops into a sprint
• Multiple bounds into a sprint
• Multiple shuttle sprints (back and forth)
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